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PREVOCATIONAL 

AND 

INDUSTRIAL ARTS 

By 

HARRY E. WOOD 

Director of Manual Training 

Indianapolis Public Schools 

And 

JAMES H. SMITH 

Supervisor of the Principal's Course 

Whitewater State Normal School 

Whitewater, Wisconsin 

(Formerly Teacher of Mathematics and Manual Training 

School of Education, University of Chicago) 



With Illustrations by 

HARRY E. WOOD 



1919 

CHICAGO 

ATKINSON, MENTZER & COMPANY 






COPYRIGHT 1919 BY 
ATKINSOX. MEXTZER & COMPANY 
ALI, BIGHTS HESEKVED 



Uhk 22 i9i9 
ICI.A5I 1971 



PREFACE 



Changing industrial and social conditions demand changes 
along educational lines. In the early period of our national devel- 
opment manufacturing was done in the home and a child had 
a chance to observe the work of his parents or his older brothers 
or sisters, and thus absorb the means and methods of work. 
In the present stage of production on a large scale, everything 
is so highly specialized that the young employed worker does 
not even have the opportunity of seeing what is taking place 
in other parts of the plant in which he works. The school there- 
fore faces the problem of giving as broad a knowledge of indus- 
tries and occupations as is possible with the facilities and equip- 
ment available, thus supplying what was formerly obtained from 
the home and small shop. 

The mere acquiring of the so-called fundamentals is not 
sufificient to equip the children of today so that they can intelli- 
gently choose their life work. They should have a taste of 
industrial work in a prevocational way in order that they may, 
with some degree of intelligence, choose occupations for which 
they are fitted. It is not presumed that the brief courses in our 
public schools will make them proficient in any craft or occupa- 
tion, but leaders in education realize that personal dislikes, 
mental and physical deficiencies and lack of dexterity can early 
be discovered through prevocational industrial courses. These 
courses result in the development of a keen interest on the part 
of many pupils in perhaps one or two lines together with a 
limited degree of skill in manipulating the tools of these trades 
or occupations as well as a discernment of their content. 

With these thoughts in mind, the authors of this book have 
endeavored to present various lines of work in such a fashion 
that pupils of the grammar grades or prevocational period may 
understand and make use of them ; that high school or vocational 
school pupils may profitabl}^ use them for informational or 
manipulative suggestions and that individuals, who are hot 
in school, but who are seeking help in the details of the crafts 
covered in this volume, can find the guidance which they need. 
It is impossible to cover all of the details of each craft in thg 
brief space allotted to each subject in this volume, but sufificient 
details have been given to enable the reader to do effective 
work in the subjects under consideration. 



No courses of study are suggested in this book. A variety 
of projects have l^een suggested, some of wliich will appeal to 
jHipils in a city or village and some of which will appeal more 
particularly to pupils in a rural community, but it is left to the 
instructor or individual to evolve his senuence of work. By 
means of this breadth of selected projects and the group arrange- 
ment of the book, it is made easily adjustable to the needs of 
any local situation. At the same time information on work 
outside of the particular community is brought before the 
pupils. It is the idea of the authors that the projects given in 
this text be used as suggestive material and redesigned or 
developed to suit the individual needs of the pupil. The mere 
fact that one subject is presented in this book before another, 
does not necessarily mean that it should be studied in that order ; 
in fact, it may not be possible or advisable to undertake all of 
the lines of work suggested because of inadequate equipment 
or lack of interest in some subjects in certain communities. 

It is hoped that in this text a real need in the school will 
be met. It has been developed by the authors at the suggestion 
of educators who have felt the need of a book which would set 
forth the informational side of manual arts in connection with a 
variety of subjects and projects of an industrial character. In 
this way content is emphasized as well as skill. 

THE AUTHORS. 



CONTENTS 



PREFACE 1 

SHOP EQUIPMENT 3 

WOODWORKING TOOLS 3 

MATERIALS AND PROCESSES— 

Grinding and Whetting Tools 30 

Wood and Lumber 35 

Wood Fasteners 42 

Sand Paper 52 

Wood Finishes 53 

Glass and Window Glazing 58 

Chair Seating 62 

MECHANICAL DRAWING 72 

COMMON JOINTS AND CONSTRUCTIONS 90 

WOODWORKING— 

Operations 92 

Projects 97 

JIGS AND TRICKS 154 

FACTORY ORGANIZATION 158 

SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS— 

Gardening 160 

Canning Vegetables 167 

Seed Corn 169 

Raising Poultry 172 

Raising Hogs 182 

CONCRETE 188 

METAL WORK AND FORGING 212 

PAPER AND PRINTING— 

Paper 226 

Printing 231 

SHOE REPAIRING 241 

ELECTRIC WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION— 

Bell Wiring 252 

Telegraph Circuits 259 

Motors 262 

Generators 264 

Light AViring 265 

INDEX 267 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 

SHOP EQUIPMENT 

To do good work, one must have good tools. Only standard 
brands should be purchased. Not a great variety of tools is 
necessary for all kinds of work. One can make many useful 
articles with just those tools double starred in the list below, but 
it is better to have also those which are single starred. 

A good work bench is also essential. It can be purchased 
complete or can be made and a vise added. 1 he bench should 
be fastened securely to the floor. One should not attempt to 
work in a poorly lighted room, since so much depends upon 
accuracy. A damp room should also be avoided because the 
tools will rust in such a place. A rack for holding the tools 
should be built on or near the bench and a place for each tool 
established. Each tool should be kept in the place made for 
it when not in use. Tools should occasionally be greased with 
lubricating oil or vaseline to keep them from rusting. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WOODWORKING TOOLS 







** 


Cross cut 




* 


Rip 




* 


Back 




SAW'S 


Mitre 
Key hole 




* 


Turning 
Coping 




* 


Jack 




.* 


Smoothing 
Jointer 




PLANES 


Block 




** 


Spoke shave 


CUTTING . 




_Router 


TOOLS 








» 


Firmer 




• * 


Framing 




CHISELS ■< 


Mortise 




* 


Gouge 
Veining 

rSloyd 




KNIVES ** - 


Pocket 
Id raw 




CHOPPING 
TOOLS ** " 


rAxe 
Hatchet 
lAdze 


• * 


Pvule 




* 


Try S 


>quare 


LAYING OUT ** , 


Fram 


ing square 


TOOLS ** 


Mark 


ing gauge 


** 


Divid 


era 




* 


iTee t 


evel 



BORING 
TOOLS 



HOLDERS 



BITS 



HOLDING 
TOOLS 



DRIVING 
TOOLS 



SCRAPING 
TOOLS 



Brace 
Hand drill 



rOimlet 
Dowel 
Auger 
Twist drill 
Expansive 
Forstner 
Countersink 



'Saw horse 
Vise 

Bench hook 
Bench stop 
Hand screw 
Carriage clamp 
Cabinet clamp 

.Mitre box 



Hammer 
Mallet 

Screw driver 
Nail set 
Wrench 



f Scrapers 
( Files 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 



Rf 


1 

51 






SAWS 

The tool first used in getting out stock is the saw. There 
are several varieties adapted to various uses, but they are all 
grouped in two general classes, i. e., crosscut and rip. As the 
name indicates, cross cut saws are designed to cut across the 
grain and rip saws are designed to rip boards apart in the direc- 
tion of the grain. Wood can be separated easily in the direction 
of the grain, but the fibers of which it is composed are tough 
and hard to separate across the grain, in fact they must be cut. 
A simple experiment proving this theory can be made by 
splitting a board with a knife or hatchet, as at Fig. 1. A 
reasonable amount of pressure on the tool will split the board 
its full length. If the same experiment is tried in the edge of 
the board. A- Fig. 2, it will be found that the tool will penetrate 
only to a slight depth and that it will make no impression on 
the wood beyond the edge of the tool. The only way the board 
can be cut in two across the grain is to cut into the edge at two 
points and force the wood between to crack out, B- Fig. 2. 

A cross cut saw acts on a board something like a series of 
knives operated in pairs. The teeth are shape:! as at A-Fig. 3. 
One tooth is beveled on one side, the next tooth on the opposite 
side. This makes an extreme point on each tooth, but one is 
on one side of the saw bl.ade and the next is on the opposite 
side. A saw with teeth shaped like this, when drawn over a 
board, does in one operation exactly what a knife might be 
made to do in several, i. e.. scores the wood in two places and 
chips out the particles between, C-D and E-Fig. 2. A saw 
constructed in this way would not, however, penetrate far into 
the wood until the blade would begin to bind. To overcome 
this the points of the teeth are bent outward, first one to one 



SAWS 



CROSSCUT SAW 




Sect/on view A- A 






<^53^S^^:^i5^^S^^ 



r.g.3 





side, then the next to the opposite side. A saw with the teeth 
so bent is said to possess "set." Fig. 3 shows several views of 
a cross cut saw, with and without set, also its action on wood. 
The cut or crack made in the wood by the saw is called the kerf. 
A cross cut saw can also be made to cut in the direction of the 
grain but when used for this purpose its action is slow and un- 
satisfactory. 

The teeth of a rip saw are somewhat like chisels. They are 
not sharpened to a bevel on the edge and they are not pointed. 
As has been stated, the fibers in wood separate easily in the 
direction of the grain and are easily removed once they are cut. 
Cutting with the grain requires no scoring. A chisel pushed into 
the wood as at A-Fig. 5, only cuts across a group of fibers but 
the piece in front of it is easily forced out. If another chisel 
were pushed into the wood a short distance behind the first 
and in line with it, the result would be another piece of wood 
forced out. The rip saw works on this principle, each tooth 
being similar to a chisel. Like the cross cut saw, it would bind 
unless "set" to give clearance. Fig. 4, shows several views of a 
rip saw with and without set. Fig. 6 shows its action on wood. 

A rip saw will not cut across the grain because there are no 
scoring points. B-Fig. 5 shows how a chisel acts when pushed 
into the wood with the grain. Instead of removing a particle of 
the wood, it causes the wood to split in the direction of the 
grain and, in a similar manner, a saw tooth shaped like a chisel 
forced into the wood hard enough would finally split it but the 
kerf would be rough and uneven. 

The coarseness of a saw is determined by the number of 
points to the inch and is indicated by the number stamped on 
the butt of the saw. There is always one more point per inch 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 





V 


vV 


\\ ^1 


rig.5 \1/ 


^ 




Fig. -6 



Y 6 fio/nti [^ . 'I 

..-7 7ee«-,,| ■%. 
I Ai 3 ■* 5 "4^j7 i 8 



J Inch — 

Rip Saw tlg-7 



— /^ Points-, A 

,-//Teet/,.^ T'o- 
4 5 6 7 6 > 10. |l le 

///jc/i — -— 

Crosscut Saw Hg.O 



than there are teeth, Figs. 7 and 8. The size of the saw is de- 
termined by the length of the blade in inches. 

Fig. 9 shows a hand saw with the shapes and names of the 
various parts indicated. It can be toothed as a cross cut or as 
a rip saw. Its blade is taper ground, that is, the thickness is not 
the same in all parts of the blade. The butt and the blade along 
the entire length of the tooth edge are of equal thickness, but 
from the teeth to the back and from the butt to the toe, the 
gauge or thickness decreases gradually. Hand saws are used 
for cutting wood to size and for general purposes. A back saw, 
Fig. 10, is finer toothed and the blade is made of thinner metal 
of uniform thickness, consequently it is admirably suited to fine 
work. The metal back reinforces the blade and keeps it from 
buckling or bending when in use. Coping, turning and compass 
saws are used for sawing curves. 

In using the hand saw the wood should be held firmly over 
a saw horse with the knee against or on the wood. Fig. 11 
shows the starting position with the left hand holding the board 
and at the same time guiding the saw. The first movement 



Fig? 

3Qck 

' nib (for Ornament on/y) 

21 Gouge" - 

. _ 20 Couge- 

^7oe £>reCl^t<X^fT^f<fly convex) 



5crews 



Handle 




ffumbtr 

A Jndi 
3utt, 



SAWS 



E 



Back 5aw 



cjj . 




Turning 5aw 

Ktyhok o^ 
FlC 10 Compaa 5aw 



Fig 


11 


i 




^X 






5^0 


^^^^— «^ 




/ 


V\ 




^\^ 




should be a short, slow, dragging stroke and the next a slow 
thrust, both without much pressure or weight applied to the saw. 
Once the saw kerf is started the saw is guided by the twist and 
slant given to the handle with the right hand. In sawing it is 
always held at about the angle illustrated. Fig. 12 shows 
method of holding saw and work when finishing cut. 

The back saw, being used for small and accurate work, is 
held somewhat differently. The wood is placed against a bench 
hook or in a vise where it can be held firmly. The saw is guided 
by the left hand and the tooth edge near the toe started into the 
wood as in Fig. 13. This position is not held continually as with 
the hand saw. It is only a starting position. After the cutting 
edge has entered the board sufficiently to hold it in the wood at 
the far edge, the other edge of the saw is gradually lowered as 
the saw is moved backward and forward until the entire cutting 
edge of the saw has entered the top surface of the wood. This 
slow lowering of the blade allows one to follow the sawing line 
carefully. The saw held in this horizontal position is drawn 
backward and forward in this surface cut until the proper depth 




Fig. 13 



_ ■h'f-%t Oh 

y starting ftmition 
•'•«- La%t poiition 




WOODWORKING TOOLS 




is reached. Care should be taken that the saw blade is kept 
perpendicular during the entire time the cut is being made so 
that the end of the board will be true. 

A mitre saw is nothing more than a large back saw. As the 
back saw gets its name from its form of construction, so the 
mitre saw gets its name from the use to which it is put, i. e. 
making mitres. It is used in a mitre box as illustrated in Fig. 
14. An adjustable feature of this box makes possible the cutting 
of any angle between 45° and 90°. A simple mitre box which 
can be made and used with a back saw to take the place of a 
mitre saw is illustrated in Fig. 64, page 24. 

A keyhole saw, sometimes called a compass saw, has a blade 
which tapers almost to a point and is so shaped for the purpose 
of sawing small openings and inside curves. A hole sufficiently 
large to take the point of the saw, must be bored in the wood 
with an auger bit before the saw can be inserted. 

Turning and coping saws are used for sawing outside curves 
or those which can be entered from the edge of the board. They 
may also be used for inside curves provided a hole is first bored 
in the wood as for the keyhole saw. The blades are removable 
and are very delicate. They should be kept stretched taut when 
in use to prevent breaking. The turning saw is held by the near 
handle with the right hand when starting a cut, with the left 
hand guiding the blade, Fig. 15. Once the saw is started into the 
wood, the left hand is placed as in Fig. 16. The teeth in the 
blade should point toward the workman so that the cutting takes 
place while the saw is being pulled rather than pushed. The 
coping saw is used mostly on wood that is too thin to be held 
in the vise and sawed with the turning saw. The best results can 
be obtained if the wood is held over a saw block as in Fig. 17. 
The teeth of the saw should point toward the handle and the 
blade should be held perpendicular at all times to insure the 
making of a square edge. 



PLANES 




front corruQOted 




Cutting cylinder 

/ -yy^^SQck corrugated roll 

'I ^'Surfaced board 

'■ ■ --' / , 



Drd I I 3ea | | sed 



Cross Section of Planer 

5tction of /"^^-^yv,.- 
Cutting Cylinder ^-^^^ 



Fig. 19 



PLANES. 

Sawed lumber is rough on the surface. Before it can be used 
in cabinet work or for anything requiring a finish it must be 
smoothed. Usually this is done on a surfacer or planer, Figs. 
18 and 19. A set of corrugated rolls pull the board through the 
machine while a revolving cylinder in which a set of knives is 
imbedded, cuts away the outer part, leaving the board fairly 
smooth. The board is then turned over and the other side 
planed. 

While to all appearances the surface is smooth, on close 
examination it will be found to be ribbed across the grain, due 
to the fact that the knives on the surfacer gouge out pieces of 
the surface instead of splitting of¥ shavings. If an extremely 
smooth surface is desired, a smoothing plane. Fig. 20 is used. 
The cutting blade in this plane is pushed along over the surface 
of the board, splitting the fibers apart and leaving a very smooth 
surface. A, B and C, Fig. 22, show highly magnified drawings 
of a board, first as it comes from the planer, and then from the 
smoothing plane. 

There are several kinds of planes. Those used for smooth- 
ing flat surfaces are known as smoothing, jack and jointer planes. 
A smoothing plane is used to produce exceptionally smooth 



Fig. 20 



Cutting 'E>ladt.- 

(/'/o'Sc Iran) 



Knob- 




Fig. 21 



10 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 




surfaces. A jack plane is of the same shape and construction 
but slightly larger and the cutting blade is sharpened differently. 
Because of this, work can be speedily roughed out with it. It is 
never used for smoothing work unless the blade is sharpened 
as in a smoothing plane. A jointer plane is like smoothing and 
jack planes except that it is very much longer. The cutting 
blade is sharpened like that of a smoothing plane. Because of 
the extreme length of the plane bottom it is possible to make a 
very true edge which can be jointed to another board, hence the 
name jointer. Because of its size it is never used on broad sur- 
face work. Fig. 23 shows the comparative sizes of these planes. 

Block planes, Fig. 25, are used for planing end grain only. 
The angle of the cutting blade is lower than that in the other 
planes because of the dift'erent nature of the work required of it. 
A spoke shave, Fig. 25, is a kind of plane having handles on the 
sides. The shortness of the bottom makes possible its use in 
smoothing curved surfaces. Rabbet planes, plow planes and 
router planes are used respectively for cutting rabbets, plowing 
grooves and routing out dadoes. 

There are three styles of planes used in smoothing flat sur- 
faces, wooden, wooden bottom and iron. Fig. 26. In the wooden 
plane the cutting iron is held in place by a wedge of wood. In 




PLANES 



11 




the wooden and iron bottom planes an adjusting nut and lever 
regulate the depth and squareness of the cut. The cutting iron 
in a smoothing plane is always sharpened straight and square 
to the sides while the cutting edge of the jack plane iron is 
slightly curved, Fig. 24. See section on "Grinding and Whetting 
Tools" for correct shape and bevel of cutting irons. The distance 
the cutting iron projects below the bottom of the plane is con- 
trolled by the adjusting nut. To adjust the plane, the plane iron 
and plane iron cap should be assembled as in A-Fig. 21 and 
placed in position in the bed of the plane and the lever cap 
clamped down. The plane should then be held bottom side up, 
the toe toward the workman and the heel toward the window or 
light. Fig. 27 . Sighting along the bottom, one can see the plane 
iron projecting. By manipulating the adjusting nut and lever, 
the proper adjustment can be made. The plane iron cap, some- 
times called the breaker cap because it breaks the angle of the 
shavings when they are cut ofif the board, causing them to curl 
upward and out of the plane, should be screwed securely to the 
plane iron. In assembling the plane iron and cap the lower edge 
of the latter should be set back of the cutting edge about one- 
eighth of an inch. If set closer than this the throat of the plane 
will become clogged with shavings : if farther away it will not 
make the shavings roll out. 




12 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 




In planing one should start at the near end of the board, A- 
Fig. 28. A maximum amount of pressure should be applied to 
the knob and toe at the beginning of the stroke and as the plane 
is pushed along the board an equal amount of pressure is ap- 
plied to all parts of the plane. As the plane nears the end of the 
board, greater pressure is applied to the handle and heel, B- 
Fig. 30. The plane can be pushed along the board more easily 
if turned at a slight angle, but never to such an extent that the 
entire bottom of the plane does not rest on the board. When 
planing edges the thumb and first finger are held on the plane 
while the other fingers act as a guide. After a little experience 
in planing one can tell by the feeling of the fingers whether or 
not the edge is being planed square to the broad face. Fig. 31 
shows the manner of holding the plane when planing a broad 
face. Fig. 2)2 illustrates the way of holding the spokeshave 
when smoothing a curved edge. 

When cutting a chamfer across the grain it is necessary to 
hold the plane at a slant as at A-Fig. 33, in order to prevent 
the far edge of the board from splitting, while in cutting a cham- 
fer with the grain, the plane is held as at B-Fig. 2>Z. 



CHISELS 



13 



Tang 
Firmer 
Chisel 

ft 



bocket 

Framing 

Chisel 



Leather 



Handle 




tip 



bocktt 



Fig. 54 



Veining 
Tool 



Tang 

GcugQ 



Socket 
Gouge 



tc^r 



Qrindinfl 
beve/ ~~ 



Cutting edgeJ' 



5hapei <^ gouges 

TIat iweep 
fledium iwetp 

Regular 



Tntide 
i>eveU 

Outiide 
bevel 



TiEJi 



CHISELS. 

There are two general classes of chisels known as firmer and 
framing, Fig. 34. They are very similar in construction and each 
has a straight cutting edge. Their chief difference is that one is 
heavier and stronger than the other. Either of these chisels can 
be secured in the tang or socket style. In the tang chisel the 
metal part extends up into the wooden handle. In the socket 
chisel the wooden handle fits into a socket in the metal part. 
The blades of each can be secured either plain or with the side 
edges beveled. Light firmer chisels are called paring chisels. 
Extremely thick bladed but narrow framing chisels are called 
mortise chisels. Both kinds of chisels come in varying widths 
from Vs" to 2". 

Gouges are, in reality, chisels having a curved cutting edge. 
They can be secured in either the tang or socket style. They 
also come in widths varying from y^" to 2" and in different 
sweeps or curves. The bevel of a gouge is sometimes on the 
outside and sometimes on the inside. 

The gouge is used for cutting out depressions where the 
inner edge of the depression is to be round. Of the two kinds 
the outside ground gouge is the more useful for general pur- 
poses. However, it is necessary to have an inside ground gouge 



14 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 




if straight sided holes of any great depth are to be made. The 
gouge is held in ways similar to those described for chiseling. 

Veining tools are extremely small, outside beveled gouges. 
They are used for gouging out or veiniyg outlines around a de- 
sign on wood. They can be secured either V shape or U shape. 

Extreme care must be taken to cut exactly with the line 
when "veining" around a design. The straight edge of the try 
square or framing square can be used to advantage in con- 
trolling straight line cuts, it being held so that the straight edge 
follows the linie and the veining tool operated against it. 

In using a chisel the iirst essential thing is to see that it is 
sharp. (See section on "Grinding and Whetting Tools.") If used 
properly it will retain its edge for a long time but if it is abused 
it will be necessary to resharpen it continually. In using either 
the chisel or gouge the blade back of the cutting edge is held 
with the left hand, thus guiding and controlling the cutting edge, 
while the power is applied with the right hand. When the pres- 
sure is applied to the handle, forcing the blade through the wood, 
the blade should be given a slight sidewise, paring stroke. This 
will produce a smoother cut and less pressure will be required 
for operating the tool. For heavy work the blade is grasped with 
the entire hand while for light work the blade is held only be- 
tween the first two fingers and thumb. If a considerable amount 
of wood is to be removed with the chisel, large cuts may be 
taken at first but as the limit of the depression is neared, very 
thm cuts, in fact shavings should be made to insure a smooth, 
true surface. The chisel blade acts on the wood precisely as 
does the plane bit. In the plane the bottom keeps the cutting 
edge from going too deeply into the wood, while with the chisel 
the left hand must regulate the cut. Fig. 35 shows the method 



KNIVES 



15 




of holding the chisel while making a verticle cut and Fig. 36 
illustrates the method of paring and rounding a corner. 

In case of very heavy work or extremely hard wood, the 
mallet may be used to give additional power to the stroke, the 
left hand being used as before mentioned, in controlling or guid- 
ing the direction of the cut. Care should be taken not to muti- 
late the end of the chisel or gouge handle when pounding it. If 
any great amount of heavy chiseling is to be undertaken a handle 
having a leather tip or an iron ferrule is better than the plain 
wood handle. A mallet should never be used if enough power 
can be supplied with the hand by pushing, even if the chips 
removed are much smaller. 

In chiseling mortises (see page on joints) the bulk of the 
wood may be removed to the proper depth with an auger bit and 
then the sides and ends pared up with the paring chisel. In 
making a tenon the chisel is held bevel side up as at Fig. Z7 and 
the wood removed down to the gauge line. In cutting dadoes, 
Fig. 38, or tenons, the chisel should never be pushed all the 
jvay across the board, because it will split out as when planing 
across grain. The cutting should be done from each edge 
toward the center, to a point slightly beyond the center. 



KNIVES. 

The knife differs from a chisel in that its cutting edge is 
along the side of the blade instead of the end. The sloyd knife 
and the pocket knife are sharpened with both sides of the blade 
sloping to the cutting edge instead of being beveled on one side 
as on the chisel, but the blade of a draw knife is beveled on one 
side and flat on the other. Fig. 39. While sloyd or pocket knives 
are primarily used for whittling wood, they are indispensible 



ir, 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 



^D/ade 



Pocket Knife 

Fig. 39 




bhingliriQ Hatchet ^ Adze. 

Fig.4Q 



tools in laying out work, the points being used to score lines. 
The blade of the sloyd knife is stationary and it is thicker and 
more pointed than the blade of a pocket knife. 

The draw knife is composed of a long blade with a handle 
on each end. It is a valuable tool for removing waste wood 
when there is hardly enough to remove with the saw but too 
much to plane away. Its cutting edge acts like the cutting edge 
of a plane but it is pulled through the wood instead of being 
pushed. It is a dangerous tool to manipulate and unusual pre- 
cautions should be taken in using it. It also has a tendency to 
split the wood rather than to cut it. 

CHOPPING TOOLS 

There are three kinds of chopping tools, Fig. 40, the axe, 
the hatchet and the adze. While the shape of the axe is slightly 
different from that of the hatchet, the cutting edges are alike, 
being beveled from both sides like the knife. An axe is heavier 
than a hatchet and has a long handle so shaped and curved as 
to secure ease in holding it and to make possible the delivery of 
a more powerful stroke when the tool is used. There is great 
variety of design in both axes and hatchets. 

There are two kinds of hatchets known as shingling hatchets 
and half hatchets. Each has a nick in one side of the bit for 
pulling nails. Each also has a head for driving nails. The axe 
is used for felling trees, splitting fire wood, and for heavy chop- 
ping and the hatchet for light chopping. 

The adze is about the size of an axe but its cutting edge is 
at right angles to the handle instead of in the same direction, like 
the axe. The adze is used chiefly to square up timbers. 



LAYING OUT TOOLS 



17 




3 11 



^Tisfing, edge 
Handle a- beam 

I Sefsftw 



Try 5qmr^ y,^.,,,,. 

''<fe%//5;«"A\ ■ 



5fee/ Framing 5<juare 



Marking Gauge 




LAYING OUT TOOLS 

Laying out tools are used for determining sizes and setting 
off lines or shapes. The rule or scale, A-Fig. 41, is used for de- 
termining size. Some tools have the scale of measurement on 
some part of the tool so that the operation of measuring can be 
performed at the same time the lines are set off. The try square, 
B-Fig. 41, is a tool used on narrow stock for setting off lines at 
right angles (90°) to a straight edge and also foi testing the face 
thus made to see if it is true and square to the other faces. The 
blade is graduated in the same manner as a rule. In testing or 
laying out with the try square, the head of it must always be 
held rigidly against a square or true surface. The framing 
square, C-Fig. 41, is similar to the try square and is used for the 
same purpose on larger work. Instead of having a handle and 
blade like the try square, it is composed of two blades, each be- 
ing graduated in the same manner as a rule. Being much larger 
than a try square, it is particularly well adapted to laying out 
and testing frame work, hence the name framing square. 

The marking gauge, D-Fig. 41, consists of a beam and a 
movable head. Imbedded in one end of the beam is a sharp 
steel scoring point. The beam in some gauges is graduated like 
a rule. The gauge is used to lay out widths up to six inches. 
The scoring point is sometimes sharpened to a point and it is 
sometimes wedge shape. If properly adjusted, Fig. 43, the 
wedge shape works more easily and produces the best results 
because the shape helps to hold the scoring point in the wood. 
To set the gauge, the set screw in the head is released, the head 
slid along the beam until the face nearest the scoring point is 
over the desired mark on the beam, then the set screw tightened. 
On an old gauge this tightening of the set screw often allows the 



18 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 



Fig.4^ 




5ide 



I bottom 

rig.43 



Fig. 44 




head of the gauge to slip. It is therefore necessary to test the 
adjustment with the rule after the screw has I^een tightened as 
in Fig. 42, in order to insure accurate work. After the gauge is 
properly set it is placed with the head against the straight edge 
from which the line is to be gauged and the tool pushed along 
the board and at the same time against this straight edge, Fig. 
44. The beam should be slightly tilted in the direction in which 
the gauge is being pushed so that the scoring point is dragged 
along the wood, otherwise it will tear the wood. It will also 
have a tendency to follow the grain in the wood instead of cut- 
ting a line parallel to the edge, if the point is held erect. 

Dividers, E-Fig. 41, look something like a compass. They 
are used for scoring circular lines, for stepping off duplicate 
dimensions and for scoring lines parallel to curved or irregular 
shaped surfaces. The dividers are adjusted by loosening the set 
screw, which allows the wing to slide freely in the slot in the 
arm of the dividers, until the points are the desired distance 
apart. This distance may be gauged by holding the points over 
a rule as in setting a compass. Once this distance is regulated, 
the set screw is tightened. When testing the distance between 
the points of the dividers, if it is found that only a slight inac- 
curacy exists, instead of adjusting with the set screw this can be 



JL 


Fig. 45 




Fig. 46 n 





I---., , 


<^^' 



LAYING OUT TOOLS 



19 




corrected by tightening or loosening the adjusting nut on the 
end of the wing. Circular lines are made by using the dividers 
as a compass is used. Duplicate dimensions are set off as illus- 
trated in Fig. 45. A line parallel to a surface of irregular shape 
can be gauged by holding the dividers as in Fig. 46 and dragging 
them along, making one point follow the shape being paralleled 
while the other scores the desired line. 

The sliding T bevel, F-Fig. 41, is similar to a try square 
excepting that the blade in a T bevel is adjustable, making pos- 
sible the setting of the blade to any angle. In adjusting a T 
bevel the set screw is loosened and the blade slid up and down 
until the desired angle is reached. This angle may be deter- 
mined by placing the T bevel over a piece of work having a 
bevel to be duplicated, Fig. 47, fitting the blade down tightly 
and tightening the set screw. If the angle of the bevel is to be 
determined by measurement instead of taken from a pattern, the 
T bevel is placed over the framing square as shown in Fig. 48. 
and the blade is moved around until its edge touches the desired 
figures on the blades of the framing square. If ihe T bevel blade 
touches like marks on each blade of the square, the angle will 
be 45°. 




/ 


fig. 50 


^ 


^k:. 



20 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 



Expansii/e 



Gimlet TWi. 



Brad Aval 



^ Aose 

/iviOltr Counteriink 




TmitJnII 



'^- //0//OW 



age> 

,-^^ , ^""::"e ■ 



Fig. 51 



WOOD BORING TOOLS 

Round holes can be made in wood in several ways ; with a 
brad awl, a gimlet bit, a twist drill, an auger bit, an expansive 
bit or a Forstner bit, Fig. 51, or by sawing with a coping saw, 
turning saw or keyhole saw. See section on "Saws." The 
range of sizes of holes which can be made by these tools is given 
in the accompanying chart. 



Alinimum 
Kind of Tool Size 

Brad Awls to, 

Gimlet Bits 3^" to, 

Twist Drills No. 80 to. 

Auger Bits h" to, 

1" to. 

Expansive Bits %" to 

Forstner Bits Ya" to 

Coping Saws ^4" to 

Turning Saws 1" to 

Keyhole Saws 1 ^" to 



Maximum 
Size 



Graduations 



. . .y^" by 32nds. 

.No. 1 by wire gauge numbers. 

. . . y^" by 32nds. 

. . . 1" by 32nds. 

... 2" by 16ths. 

... 5" by adjustable screws and cutters of 
different sizes. 

..IK'" by 16ths. 

. . .any size up to 8". 

. ..any size inside the limit of the wood, with- 
in range of the saw frame. 

. ..limited only by the size of the wood being 
sawed. 



The brad awl is shaped much like a nail and acts on wood in 
a similar way. It only separates but does not cut the fibers. It 
can be used only in soft wood and unless handled carefully will 
split the wood. The hole is made by twisting the awl back and 
forth and at the same time pushing the point into the wood. 
Fig. 52. 

All bits with square shanks are held in a brace. Fig. 54. and 
turned clockwise in boring a hole. Much care should be taken in 



WOOD BORING TOOLS 



21 



Fig. 52 





Oean 



Rg.53 




Jawi 



placing a bit in the brace to see that the shank is held rigidly in 
the jaws of the chuck. Otherwise the bit will not bore straight. 
A bit is inserted by gripping the chuck firmly with the left hand 
and turning the handle backward. This will open the jaws of 
the chuck and permit the bit to be inserted. Reversing these 
processes fastens the bit in the chuck. 

Small twist drill bits have round shanks and are held in a 
hand drill, Fig. 53. They are twisted in or out of the wood much 
faster than is possible with a brace, due to the fact that the bevel 
gears multiply the speed, one revolution of the handle turning 
the bit four or five times. Hand drills will hold twist drill bits 
from Ya" in size down to those as small as a needle, but one sel- 
dom uses in wood such small bits as the latter. The drill bits 
are placed in the chuck of the hand drill in the same manner as 
the larger bits are placed in the brace. 

The gimlet bit makes only a fairly smooth sided hole. The 
shape of the point helps to pull it into the wood. The cutting 
edge cuts the wood fiber and the channel removes the shavings. 
The twist drill requires the application of more pressure when 
boring because its point does not aid in pulling it into the wood. 
The auger bit is especially designed for cutting a smooth sided 
hole ; the point centers the bit and pulls it into the wood, the 
spurs score the wood, or in other words, cut the shape of the 
hole, the lips cut the wood loose and force it up the hollow in 
the twisted channel. If the hole is bored only part way through 
a board, the bottom of the hole retains the shape of the bit, as at 
A-Fig. 55. The expansive bit works in the same manner as the 
auger bit but it may be adjusted in such a way as to make it 
possible to bore holes of dififerent sizes with the same bit. A 
Forstner bit cuts a clean, straight sided hole with a flat bottom 



22 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 



Fig. 55 




^ 

i=^ 


He.56 

i 


^■^ — ^ 


^= — i 


A B 



as at B-Fig. 55. The Forstner bit requires the application of 
much greater pressure than bits having a threaded centering 
point. 

The countersink is not designed to cut holes all the way 
through the wood. Its purpose is to ream out a hole made by 
a gimlet bit or twist drill, so that the head of a flat head screw 
will sink even with the face of the board. Fig. 56 shows the 
method of countersinking and testing the hole for size. 

When wood is being bored it should be held rigidly in a vise 
and the angle of the bit in relation to the wood carefully deter- 
mined and kept while the hole is being made. The wood may be 
so placed that the brace is held vertical as in Fig. 57, or horizon- 
tal as in Fig. 58. It is sometimes necessary, for the sake of ac- 
curacy, to have one person operating the brace and bit and an- 
other person- sighting to see that the brace is being held at the 
proper angle. 

It is impossible to tell exactly when to stop boring in order 
to make a hole of a certain depth. Experience and practice will 
aid one in judging the amount of pressure and the number of 
turns necessary to produce certain results but it will be neces- 
sary to remove the bit occasionally and test, with a small stick, 
the depth of the hole. When more than one hole of a certain 




Fig. 56 




HOLDING TOOLS 



23 



Fig. 59 




Saw fiorsz 



Tool we// 



Too/ racA 




Tailvkz 



Frame 



Work Bench 



Fig.eo 



size is to be bored to the same depth, time is saved in testing 
by keeping an accurate count in the first hole of the number of 
turns the brace makes after the bit begins to cut. Succeeding 
holes can be made without testing by counting the same number 
of turns provided an equal amount of pressure is applied in each 
case. See section on "Jigs and Tricks" for devices for gauging 
and regulating holes made with a bit. 

HOLDING TOOLS 

Tools and devices for holding materials while working on 
them are just as important as the tools with which the actual 
work is done. The saw horse is a device for holding wood when 
laying out or sawing it. Fig. 59 shows a convenient saw horse 
having an open top. This style is well suited for use when rip- 
ping small boards or for cutting off stock. The brackets on the 
sides form a convenient place for keeping a- cross cut saw and 
a rip saw within easy reach. A saw horse can be made any size 
to suit one's needs. 

The work bench should have a vise on it for holding the 
wood when working upon it. Some benches are equipped with 
two vises, one on the front edge called the front vise, the other at 
the right end called the tail vise. One can get along very well 
with one vise provided it is near'the left end on the front edge of 



bench A 
//oo/r 




Fig. 61 Bench 6top 



^^^^H!^f''^^'''V^'' Thumb 




Hand 



Jaws 



Carriag(d 



5crew pjg. qz Clamp 



24 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 



Fig. 63 




Cabinet Clamp 




Corner — 



4/7g/e p/ate^ 




Mitre 



Fig. 64 



the bench. There are many styles and designs of vises but they 
can be grouped under two general types, one known as the con- 
tinuous screw and the other as rapid acting. In the continuous 
screw, the only way to open or close the vise is to screw or un- 
screw it with the handle while in the rapid acting vise the 
front jaw may be opened or closed most of the way by simply 
sliding it. 

A bench hook, A-Fig. 61, is a very convenient tool and it 
can be made in the shop. Small pieces of wood are held against 
it when being sawed or chiseled. It may be hooked over the 
edge of the bench or the lower block may be fastened in the vise. 
Fig. 10 in the section on "Mechanical Drawing" gives the work- 
ing details of a good bench hook. The block on one side is shown 
placed to the right, on the other side to the left, so that it can 
be used for either a right or left handed workman. Bench hooks 
are usually put together with dowel rods and glue so that if the 
saw or chisel cuts into the block, the edge will not be dulled. 
In the absence of dowel rods the bench hook may be nailed or 
screwed together. 

There are two kinds of bench stops, B and C-Fig. 61. One 
is made with a block which fits in a vise and holds a thin board 
out over the bench so that wood can be pushed against it when 
planing. The other is made to fit a square hole in the top ot 
the bench. A cross peg in this latter kind of stop keeps it from 
falling all the way through the hole. This kind of stop is used 
when work is to be clamped between the vise and the stop. 

Hand screws and carriage clamps.. Fig. 62, are used to hold 
pieces of wood together when gluing or nailing them. Hand 
screws are sometimes used for holding wood at an irregular 
angle in the vise while planing, boring or chiseling it. Fig. 2. 



HOLDING TOOLS 



25 



P/a/n eye 




Fig. 65 



D 



■Handle 



Plain EyQ Hammer 



^ffcnd/e 



/'o/z-^^lJ Adzz Eye Hammer 

Sdlface 



:msMMiiSMD 




^ferrule ^Handle 



^crew Driver 



Nail 5et 




_ _ ^-Sjjuitmg nut 

Jawi* Monkey Wrench 



Screw Driver 3it 



page 157. 1 he jaws of the hand screw should always be kept as 
near parallel as possible because otherwise a strain is produced 
on the screws, which will break them. It is always best to begin 
the tightening with the middle screw and then complete it with 
the end screw. 

Cabinet clamps, Fig. 63, are used on large work for the same 
purpose as hand screws, i. e. clamping boards together while the 
glue sets or while nails or screws are driven in. 

A mitre box is a device for holding wood while it is being 
sawed at a determined angle. A simple mitre box for cutting 
right angles and 45° angles can be made as at Fig. 64. It is very 
necessary that the saw used in the mitre box have a blade of 
equal thickness at all points. For this reason a back saw is used. 
This kind of a saw also produces much more accurate work be- 
cause the blade is thin and the teeth fine. By properly placing 
angle irons on the box as shown in the drawing, the metal back 
of the saw can be made to ride, thus keeping the cutting edge 
from sawing all the way through and spoiling the box. These 
angle irons should be separated just far enough to give clearance 
to the saw blade without side play, if accurate work is to be 
expected of it. The saw must be slid into the slots or kerf from 
the side. Forcing it in from the top would dull the teeth of the 
saw and spring the mitre box. Mitre boxes having an adjust- 
ment for holding the saw at any angle, can be purchased, but 
for ordinary purposes the home-made box will be found to be 
satisfactory. 



26 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 




DRIVING TOOLS 

Driving tools, Fig. 65, group themselves into two classes 
because of the manner in which they drive. The hammer and 
mallet belong to that class which produces driving power by in- 
termittent pounding strokes. The nail set, while it does not 
produce driving power in this way, transmits power produced by 
the hammer and therefore belongs to this class. The screw 
driver and wrench belong to the other class in which the driving 
power is produced by continuous twisting pressure. This power 
applied to screws and bolts forces them into the wood if turned 
clockwise, or out of the wood if the direction is reversed. 

Hammers designed for pulling as well as driving nails are 
called claw hammers. There are two kinds, plain eye and adze 
eye. Of the two the adze eye is the better because the part of 
the handle which is inside the hammer head is longer. This 
makes it more secure. The head of the hammer stays on better 
and the handle is not so apt to break. In the best hammers the 
head is made of forged steel and the handle of hickory. The 
shape of each part has been carefully designed to perform easily 
its portion of the work. The face, that part used for pounding, 
is sometimes flat and sometimes convexly curved. W'hen curved 
the hammer is said to be bell faced. The claw, that part used for 
pulling nails, is tapered, curved, and of the proper pitch and 
shape to pull nails easily. The handle, while curved, is not ex- 
actly the same shape at any two places. It is full near the end 
to furnish an easy grip for the hand. It is smaller near the 
hammer head. The eye in the head of the hammer is largest 
near the outside thus allowing that part of the handle extending 
into the eye to be securely fastened with a wedge driven into 
the end of it. 



DRIVING TOOLS 



27 




When using the hammer for driving or pounding, the handle 
should be gripped firmly near the end farthest away from the 
head, Figs. 66 and 67. The hammer face should be placed over 
the nail or place to be pounded, in order to gauge the distance, 
and then the hammer head lifted to a point somewhat removed 
from the object to be struck, with a motion partly of the wrist 
and partly of the arm. The return blow is struck with a quick, 
snappy stroke, again largely a wrist movement, never a pushing 
stroke. 

The claws are so designed that when they are slipped under 
the head of a nail as in Fig. 68 and pressure applied to the handle, 
the leverage forces the nail out of the wood a certain distance. 
If one tries to force the nail farther than the hammer naturally 
pulls it, he will only succeed in bending the nail, Fig. 69. On the 
other hand if, after this first operation, a small block of wood is 
placed under the head of the hammer, Fig. 70, and pressure 
again applied to the handle, the pull on the nail is a straight up- 
ward one and the nail may be easily drawn out. 

Mallets are made of hard, tough wood and usually have a 
cylindrical head and flat faces. When the handle is put in, the 
hand end, which is smaller than the other, is inserted through 
the tapering eye in the mallet and the full length of the handle 
drawn through it. Thus the large end remains in the mallet 
head and forces it to a tight fit when the mallet is being used 
instead of allowing the head to fly ofT. The mallet is especially 
useful in producing power for chiseling and gouging because the 
pounding face is broader than that of the hammer. The wooden 
handle of a chisel or gouge will not be so badly battered up if 
pounded with a wooden faced tool like the mallet instead of with 
a metal faced tool like the hammer. 



28 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 



Plain 



MouUi, 



Swan NecA 




Cabinet 5craper^ Veneer 5craper 



Secttc 



Fig- 71 



Half Round WoodBasp 



Screw drivers must be made of a tough grade of steel since 
they are subjected to a severe twisting strain. If the steel is not 
properly tempered it will chip or twist. Unless a screw driver 
is properly shaped and made out of such material that it will 
retain that shape it is useless. The point should be square and 
the broad faces parallel so that the point will fit into the slot 
in the head of the screw. It should never be sharpened wedge 
shape because it would force itself out of the screw slot instead 
of holding itself in place. The length of a screw driver is de- 
termined by the number of inches from point to ferrule. The 
size is indicated by name, Tower's indicating heavy, cabinet 
medium, and light cabinet or electrician indicating a very slender 
blade. 

There are many kinds of wrenches. Some have adjustable 
jaws while in others the jaws are stationary. A wrench usually 
gets its name from the use to which it is put, such as bicycle 
wrench, auto wrench, pipe wrench and pocket wrench. Some- 
times, however, the name is given on account of the shape, like 
the S wrench and sometimes from the name of the manufacturer. 
The wrench perhaps most widely used is known as the Monkey 
wrench. It derives its name from the designer whose name was 
Mr. Monkey. 



SCRAPING TOOLS 
There are two distinct kinds of scraping tools. Fig. 71, those 
which have one cutting edge and those having many cutting 
edges. While the name would indicate that these tools scrape, 
in reality they cut, but the particles removed are so minute as 
to give the impression that the surface upon which they are 
used, has been merely smoothed down or scraped. 



SCRAPING TOOLS 




The cabinet scraper is nothing more than a square edged 
piece of properly tempered steel of the correct contour, some- 
times straight and sometimes curved, to fit special needs. A 
straight edged scraper is sometimes held in a bed, like the bed of 
a plane and sometimes in a handle. If held in a bed it is known 
as a veneer scraper. The successful cutting of a scraper depends 
upon a burr or wire edge rather than upon a keenly sharp edge, 
in fact the edge is not sharp. The wire edge scrapes or cuts the 
surface of the wood when the scraping edge is dragged over it, 
Fig. 72. This is exactly opposite to the way in which a plane 
acts, since it cuts when its cutting edge is pushed ahead. 

The type of scraper having many cutting surfaces is known 
as a file or rasp. Its surface is covered with teeth similar to the 
wire edge of a scraper. When the file is pushed across the wood 
these numerous cutting edges scrape or smooth the surface. 
However, cutting down a surface with a file or scraper is slow 
work and these tools should never be made to do the work which 
could be done so much better with a plane. There are several 
hundred varieties of files suited to as many different purposes. 
Their shapes are usually designated by such terms as flat, round, 
half round, taper, knife, etc. The more teeth to a given area, the 
finer the file, and the smoother will be the surface made by it. 
When a file is coarse toothed it is called a rasp. A file or rasp 
should always be pushed and never pulled across the work. 
Fig. 7X 



30 



GRINDING AND WHETTING TOOLS 

Edge tools should be kept extremely sharp if they are to 
produce good work. They are grouped into two general classes, 
those having one side beveled and the other side flat, such as 
chisels and plane irons, and those having both sides tapered to 
an edge, such as knives or hatchets. 

Edge tools are sharpened on stones or wheels composed of 
a substance which is harder than tempered steel. This substance 
is known as an abrasive. The particles composing it must be 
sharp edged so that they will cut. They must also be tough 
enough to stand the wear to which they are subjected, and they 
must be so cemented or held together that the surface of the 
abrasive keeps its shape. There are two distinct classes of 
abrasives used in sharpening edge tools, one a natural product, 
the other a manufactured article. Whether the sharpening tool 
be a natural or manufactured product, its action on the edge 
tool is the same. Both kinds can be secured in coarse, medium 
or fine grit. Sharpening stones and grinding wheels to meet the 
demands of all kinds of work can be secured in either. It is true, 
however, that the demand for the manufactured article is increas- 
ing while the sales of the natural product are decreasing. 

A hard variety of sandstone is the most widely known of 
the natural abrasives. The grindstones, scythestones and 
whetstones of a few years ago were all made out of this natural 
product and are still produced in limited quantities. The pro- 
duction of these articles is simple. The stone is merely cut out 
of the quarries and sawed into the desired shapes, just as build- 
ing stone is quarried and shaped. Washita and Arkansas are 
other forms of natural stones similar to sandstone and different 
degrees of hardness and coarseness can be secured in either. 
The hard Arkansas is considered the best natural whetstone 
for fine edge tools, while the Washita is the best of the natural 
stones for wood working tools. 

Corundum is a natural product but it has to be worked 
into shape before it can be used as an abrasive. It has a crystal 
like formation. The crystals must be crushed, graded to size 
and bound together into the desired shape of the stone or wheel 
with a suitable kind of cement. Particles of corundum are much 
harder and sharper edged than sandstone, in fact they are almost 
as hard as a diamond and the diamond is the hardest known 
substance, therefore stones made of corundum will cut metals 
which it is hard to cut with sandstone. Emery is a crude form 
of corundum. 



GRINDING 31 

The discovery of the manner ot producing artificial abrasives 
is thought to have been an accident, but whether it was or not 
it is interesting to note that in the manufactured abrasives 
called Alundum or Aloxite the substance composing the stones 
is about the same as at composing corundum. In other words, 
these manufactured abrasives are almost identical with the 
natural products. 

Alundum and Aloxite are made by fusing in an electric fur- 
nace certain kinds of clay containing a large per cent of alumi- 
num oxide. The processes necessary to make these abrasives 
are as follows: the clay is taken from the mines, washed, dried, 
ground, calcined (brought to a red heat) and fused by being fed 
into an open electric arc similar to the carbons in a street electric 
light. These carbons, each approximately 4 inches by 12 inches 
in cross section, are placed near the top of fire proof crucibles 
and as the clay is melted it drops into the crucible below the 
carbons. It takes this mass of melted clay, now called Alundum 
or Aloxite, several days to cool enough that it can be broken, 
crushed and graded. The grading is accomplished by the use 
of sieves of dififerent mesh. This crushed material is then made 
up into abrasive paper or cloth, grinding wheels and whetstones 
of all shapes and sizes, depending on the use to which they are 
to be put. 

Carborundum and Crystolon are also products of an electric 
furnace, but the chief substance in their composition is carbon 
instead of aluminum as in the case of Alundum and Aloxite. 
Coke and sand are mixed together in the right proportion and 
placed in huge electric furnaces and melted. The result is a 
beautiful bluish crystal formation, extremely sharp edged and 
just as hard as Alundum but not quite so tough. Grinding and 
whetting stones are made from it in the same manner as those 
made from Alundum. They cut more quickly but owing to the 
brittleness of the crystals they do not keep their shapes as well 
as those made of other material. 

Sharpening edge tools is performed in two distinct kinds 
of operations, i.e., grinding and whetting. Grinding consists of 
roughly removing the bulk of waste material and giving the 
tool the proper shape. This is accomplished by holding the 
tool against a revolving grinding wheel or grindstone made 
from medium or coarse grit. Whetting consists in putting a 
keen cutting edge on the tool. It is accomplished on a flat whet- 
stone procurable in varying degrees of coarseness, the selection 
being made according to the kind and quality of tool being 
sharpened and also the use to which the tool is to be put. Some 
whetstones are made with a fine surface on one side and a 
coarser surface on the other. This makes it possible to roughly 



Z2 



GRINDING AND WHETTING TOOLS 




cut away the tool on one side and finish the wlietting to a keen 
edge on the other. 

It is very essential that the cutting edge of the tool be of the 
proper shape. Beveled edge tools should have the proper pitch 
or angle and this same pitch or angle should be retained at all 
times. This can best be accomplished if the beveled edge is 
somewhat hollow ground. For this reason round grindstones 
are used, Fig. 1, the diameter of the stone regulating the acute- 
ness of the arc, thus making the hollow more or less pronounced. 

The grinding surface of the grinder should revolve toward 
the tool, not away from it, A-Fig. 1. Examination through a 
microscope of a surface of steel which has been ground will 
reveal the fact that, while the cutting stone really cuts away 
some of the particles, others are combed out and laid parallel 
to each other. It will also be noticed that while steel is thought 
of as a brittle substance, the minute particles of which it is 
composed are very flexible and bend easily. If the grindstone 
is made to revolve away from the edge of the tool as at B-Fig. 1 
a feather or wire edge will be produced which will prevent the 
edge from becoming sharp, while if the stone is turned in the 
opposite direction, toward the tool, this wire edge is turned 
under and cut off. While a wire edge can be removed during 
the whetting process, it takes much time and it is a much more 
difficult task than to remove it when grinding. 

Some abrasives cut more rapidly than others, due to the 
fact that the cutting particles of some kinds are sharper than 
others. The friction caused by the rubbing of the grindstone 
against the tool generates heat. The sharper the cutting edges 
of the particles which make up the stone, the less heat is gen- 
erated. Usually water or oil must be poured over the surface 
of a grindstone when the tool is being ground. This water or 
oil serves two purposes : it washes away the small particles of 
steel cut ofif the tool, and it cools the tool and stone. If the 
particles of steel were not washed away they would fill up the 



WHETTING 



33 



Fig. 4 



Toot flat against 
itone 




Direction of 
Stroke 



Fig. 5 




pores in the surface of the stone, reducing its cutting power, and 
it would also cause so much frictional heat that the temper 
would be drawn out of the tool ; in other words, the cutting 
edge of the tool would be so burnt that it would not hold a 
sharp edge. (See page 220 on "Tempering Tools.") If the grind- 
stone is quite coarse, the revolving stone will throw out the 
particles of steel and, while water or oil are not needed on such 
a stone, their absence necessitates the tool being held very 
lightly against the stone or the edge will be burned. 

Whetting, as has been stated, is done on a flat stone, the 
tool being rubbed over the stone instead of the stone being 
revolved against the tool. The finer the stone the keener the 
edge produced on the tool. The whetting should be done in 
precisely the same way as grinding, the tool always being moved 
over the stone toward the cutting edge. Oil should be used to 
float away the particles of steel ground ofT of the tool. Care 
must be taken at each stroke of the whetting to keep the tool 
in the same position in relation to the stone so that no unneces- 
sary bevels or rounded edges will be formed. Fig. 3 shows the 
position of the tool and of the hands when whetting a tool. 
A-Fig. 2 shows the whetting angle at the time of the first 
whetting after the tool has been ground, B, the second whetting 
and C a still later whetting. D shows a tool which has the 
proper bevel for cutting, while E and F show why improperly 
beveled tools cannot cut. 

Chisels and the cutting irons for planes need to be ground 
to different angles for different kinds of wood. The harder the 
wood, the shorter the grinding bevel required. The reason for 
this lies in the fact that the longer the bevel, the thinner the 
edge. A thin edge will break easily in hard wood. A-Fig. 2 
shows a short grinding bevel suitable for hard wood like oak, 
yellow pine, hard maple, etc., and D-Fig. 2 shows a long bevel 
suitable for basswood, sugar pine, chestnut, etc. 

When sharpening bevel edge tools, even though the tool is 



34 



GRINDING AND WHETTING TOOLS 




Fig. 7 




/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


^,'' ^\ 


.-^^^A y 


\ / -c/^'^ L 


i^^^\/ 




f 



pushed in the proper direction, a shght feather edge will appear. 
This should be removed by turning the tool flat side down and 
giving it a few strokes over the whetstone, Fig. 4. Unless the 
tool is held perfectly flat during this operation a bevel will be 
formed on the side which must necessarily remain flat. 

When grinding an edge tool on a stone having a face nar- 
rower than the width of the tool, it is necessary to slide the tool 
from side to side so that the entire edge of the tool is ground, 
Fig. 5, but the angle of the tool in relation to the stone must 
not be changed. Fig. 6 shows a type of grinder having an auto- 
matic rest for the tool so that once it is properly set, any number 
of tools of the same kind may be ground in it and the angle on 
all will be the same. 

In whetting a knife, the utmost care should be taken to 
prevent any bevel appearing on the edge. The knife should be 
held as in Fig. 7 and drawn across the stone with as much of 
the blade as possible held against the stone, Fig. 7. When 
the end of the stroke is reached, the knife is turned over and 
the blade is pushed away, with the blade again held tightly 
against the surface of the whetstone. A faulty practice engaged 
in by some persons is to give the tool a rotary, scouring motion. 
This should never be done. A few strokes, well directed, with 
the tool held properly, will accomplish much better results than 
those obtained by the revolving method. 

When an especially keen edge is desired, the tool is stropped, 
that is, it is rubbed over a leather strop in much the same way 
aG it was over the stone, excepting that the tool is pushed away 
from the cutting edge instead of toward it. The surface of the 
leather might otherwise be cut or marred. 



35 



WOOD AND LUMBER 



The lumber used in constructive work is obtained from the 
trunk of the tree. The tree is cut down, the trunk is sawed into 
logs which are then taken to the mill where they are sawed 
into lumber. The lumber is allowed to dry out or season, partly 
by being stacked in the open with sticks between each layer 
so that air can circulate around each board, afterward by 
placing these boards in a steam heated roomxalled a kiln where 
the drying process is completed. The sticks used for air-drying 
lumber are usually about l^'xl^" and of sufficient length 
to extend across the entire stack of lumber and they are usually 
placed about three to five feet apart. If the boards are dried 
too quickly they become brittle and less durable. If the moisture 
does not leave the board on all sides at the same time it will 
shrink unevenly. It will dry more on one side than on the other, 
resulting in the cupping or curling of the board toward the side 
which has dried the more quickly. This cupping of the surface 
of a board is called warping. If the board dries unevenly and 
twists, it is said to be "in wind." A board has a tendency to 
warp or cup more on the side which grew nearest the bark, as 
that side contains a greater amount of moisture. When this 
moisture is driven off, that side of the board shrinks more than 
the one nearer the center of the tree. 

After it is thoroughly dried, lumber for rough work, like 
framing and scaffolding, is ready for use. For most work, 
however, the surface of the lumber must be smoothed. This is 
called surfacing. Lumber which has been surfaced is known 
as dressed lumber. 

Some wood is adapted to one kind of work and some to 
another. Some woods are strong, others weak ; some tough, 
others brittle ; some split easily but are hard to break across 
the grain ; some are nicely marked by the grain while in others 
the markings are uninteresting. It is therefore possible to 
pick out a kind of wood suited to the kind of project to be made. 
For example, an axe handle or the spokes in a wheel should 
be tough and hard to break. Hickory is well suited for this 
purpose. The frame work of a house should be strong but it 
does not necessarily have to possess a beautiful grain. Pine is 
suitable for such uses. Furniture should have beautiful grain. 
Oak and walnut possess this quality, while chestnut, even 
though the appearance of the grain is much like oak, is too 
soft to stand the hard usage given furniture. The accompany- 
ing chart gives the general characteristics and adaptability of 
the most commonly used woods. See page 40. 



36 



WOOD AND LUMBER 




TiQA 



Center or Pith 



■Sop wood 




OrownQ part 
of wood 

'Growmo paft 
of barK 



Fig. 2 



The growth of a tree takes place jtist under the bark. 
Food stuff is taken out of the soil under the tree by the roots 
and carried by the sapwood, the outer rows of cells just under 
the bark, to the crown of the tree, where the leaves digest the 
food and send it down the trunk, part to form new wood on 
the outside of that already made and part to make new bark 
on the inside of that already formed, Figs. 1 and 2. In this way 
the tree trunk increases in diameter. 

The tree grows more rapidly during certain seasons than 
during others. This difference in growth is very pronounced 
for the cells carrying the food stuff at the rapid growing season, 
spring, are stretched to their utmost capacity, resulting in their 
walls being thin and the openings large. In the slow growing 
season, summer, the openings in the cells are very small and 
the walls thick. When a tree is cut down and the log or stump 
examined. Fig. 3, these rows of growth are very noticeable and 
it is easy to detect one year's growth from another. These 
markings are called annual rings and it is the lines produced 
by them which give the pattern called grain to lumber when 
it is cut out of a log. There are also rows of cells radiating 
from the center of the log to the bark, called medulary rays. 
These cells are hard and compact and usually form themselves 
in nearly straight lines. Their purpose is to hold the annual 
rings together, therefore a tree having very pronounced medulary 
rays is much stronger than a tree in which they are less pro- 
nounced. 

While the diameter of the tree is being increased by these 
annual rings of growth, the height is also continually increased, 
for each year's growth extends beyond that of the former year. 
It should be borne in mind, however, that each year's growth 
is fixed, that only by the next year building on top of it and 



SAWING 



Z7 



Heart wood. 




Meditlary 
fays 



Fig. 3 



^0/?eyearj Qfowth 



ray^ 




'Spring 

5ummsr 

Winter 

(/To Qrovjfft) 



rig.4 



around it does the tree develop in height and diameter. Fig. 8 
shows an exaggerated drawing of this growth, A representing a 
section of a nine year old tree split through the center from top 
to bottom, B a cross section near the base, showing the number 
of annual rings intersected and C a cross section near the top. 

The wood nearest the bark usually contains more sap than 
the center part of the trunk because it is nearer the growing 
part. It is called the sapwood, while the center part of the trunk 
is called the heartwood. Sapwood can usually be distinguished 
from the heartwood because it is lighter in color. As the tree 
increases in size it must have more bark to protect it from the 
weather, consequently the bark increases in thickness. Since 
the bark grows on the inside, it stretches the outside until it 
cracks or divides in clefts. Fig. 3 is a drawing of the end of a 
log of oak and Fig. 4 shows a highly magnified section of the 
end of the same log, showing the decided difference between 
spring and summer growth. 

When a slab is sawed from a log, Fig. 5, it leaves a flat 
surface exposed. This flat surface cuts through many of the 
annual rings. If this cut is in exactly the same direction as the 
fibers or cells, straight lined grain is the result, but if the cut is 
at a slight angle or if the tree trunk in growing was slightly 
bent, an irregular marking is the result. A board or slab taken 
off the top of this log, A-Fig. 6, will have a similar marking to 
the one taken off the side, but if the log is cut in quarters 
through the center (see dotted line. Fig. 6) and a board, B, 
sawed off of either of these new faces, a kind of grain entirely 
different in appearance is exposed. This is caused by the fact 
that the annual rings are much closer together at the points 
interpected by the saw in this board than they are at similar 



38 



WOOD AND LUMB1:R 




points in the slab and that the saw has cut in the direction of 
the medulary rays, exposing them on the broad faces of the 
board. The medulary ray is very hard. When its broad sur- 
faces are exposed by the saw cut, pleasing patterns are produced. 
Boards sawed near the outer edge of the log cut across the 
medulary rays, consequently they show but little. Fig. 7 show- 
ing these marked differences, represent boards A and B, Fig. 6, 
after they have been removed from the log. When a board is 
sawed from the log near the quartering line, exposing the broad 
surfaces of the medulary rays, it is said to be quarter sawed 
lumber. When it is sawed near the outer edges of the log it is 
said to be plain sawed. The medulary rays bind the annual 
rings together and make a strong wood, which is less susceptible 
to warping than wood without pronounced medulary rays. 

Knots in wood are cross sections of the base of limbs. Fig. 9 
shows a section through the trunk of a seven year old tree, 
having a limb which lived only four years. A board sawed 
thorugh this log at a point indicated by line A — A, Fig. 9, would 
have a sound knot in it where it cuts through the limb. A board 
taken out of the log at B — B would have a loose or dead knot. 
When this tree has become several years older the bark will have 
completely sealed over the trunk and from all outward appear- 



Qrain markings made 
by cuWnQ through ^ 
annual r/ngs 



Endi of medularv 
royi ' 




Center of tree 



3oard 5 
'Erxis o} medulary rays 

" Fig. 7 



Fig, a 



n 



LUMBER SIZES 



39 



Fig. 9 




5ect/on A -A 



1 
I 



Section C-C 



r H" 


drc; 


-sed 


to %" 




\ H" 






" Vz" 




J Va" 






" H" 


PLANKS 


BOARDS 1 1 " 






" H" 




1 \%" 






" IKs" 




{VA" 






" IM" 


TIMBER 



ances one could not tell that a knot existed underneath. A 
board taken through this outer part of the log, C — C, would 
possess crooked grain but it could not be called a knot. 

Lumber is sawed into standard lengths of 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 
and 18 feet. It is also sawed and dressed to standard thick- 
nesses as follows : 

LUMBER SIZES 

f 2" dressed to l7/s" 

J 3" " " 27/8" 

14" " " 37/8" 

15" " " 47/8" 



Thin strips are called boards, heavy boards are called planks 
and very heavy boards, timbers. 

Lumber is measured and sold by board or face measure, 
1" thick, 12" wade and 12" long indicating one foot, face or board 
measure. Anything less than 1" thick is counted face measure. 
Anything more than 1" thick is multiplied by the thickness as 
expressed in inches or fractions of an inch. The general rule 
for measuring lumber is to multiply the length of the board in 
feet, by the width and thickness in inches and divide by twelve, 
for example, r'x9"X 14'0"-^ 12^=1 0><, the number of board feet 
in the board. 

Lumber is separated into grades. Each kind of wood is 
graded differently but in general the grades are as follows : 
firsts, seconds, common, saps, selects, etc. Lumber is always 
graded by the appearance of the best side. Prices on lumber are 
usually quoted per M, meaning that the price given is for one 
thousand feet board measure. (B. M.) In making out a bill of 
material the dimensions are always given in the following order: 
thickness, width, length, regardless of which dimension is the 
longest ; in other words, length always means with the grain. 
This is done to simplify the lumberman's work. See section 
on "Mechanical Drawing" for a complete mill bill. 



40 








QUALITIES 


OF WOOD 






















Hardness 


strength 


Elasticity 


Grain 


Medulary 
ray 


Weight 


Clevibility 




Kind of 
Wood 


•o 

a 


a 

1 


1 

"S 




s 

.2 

•3 


1 


g 




r 


I 

•a 
8 
1 
g 


1 


s 

o 
o 
>-• 

Si 

S3 

o 


•a 

1 ! 
1 


o 
a_ 

3 S 

si 

2 5 

p- D. 








3 


ii 


H 
•5 


3 

a 


1 


Ash 


X 








X 






X 




X 








X 




X 








X 




2 


Basswood 






X 






X 






X 




X 






X 








X 




X 




3 


Beech 


X 






X 






X 








X 




X 






X 






X 






4 


Birch 


X 






X 






X 








X 






X 




X 






X 






5 


Cedar 




X 








X 






X 


X 










X 






X 






X 


G 


Chestnut 




X 








X 




X 


X 










X 






X 






X 


7 


Cypress 






X 






X 




X 




X 










X 






X 




X 




8 


Gum 


X 








X 








X 




X 




! 


X 




X 




X 






9 


Hickory 


X 






X 






X 






X 








X 




X 






X 






10 


Mahogany 


X 






X 








X 






X 






X 




X 










X 


11 


Maple (hard) 


X 






X 






X 








X 








X 


X 




X 






12 


Maple (soft) 




X 




X 






X 










X 




X 




|x 




X 




13 


Oak 


X 






X 








X 




X 






X 






X 








X 




14 


Pine (hard) 




X 




X 






X 






X 






X 






X 










X 


15 


Pine (soft) 






X 






X 






X 






X 






X 






X 


X 






16 


Poplar 






X 






X 




X 




X 








X 


1 






X 




X 




17 


Spruce 






X 




X 




X 








X 






X 








X 






X 


18 


Sycamore 




X 








X 




X 




X 






X 








X 




X 






19 


Walnut 


X 








X 






X 






X 








X 




X 


_J 


X 







USES OF WOOD 41 



USES 



1 Interior finish, cabinet work, barrel hoops, tool handles, oars, agricul- 
rural implements, boats, saddle trees, wheel hubs. 

2 Paper pulp, wooden ware, picture moulding, cigar boxes, toys, wagon 
beds. 

3 Tool handles, baskets, shoe lasts, levelers, chairs, fuel, shoe heels. 

4 Interior trim, spools, shoe lasts, button molds, furniture, dowel pins, 
wooden ware, paper pulp, shoe heels. 

5 Chests, cooperage, shingles, electric light poles, pencils, railroad ties, 
pails, street paving blocks, cigar boxes. 

6 Railroad ties, electric light poles, interior finish, cores for veneers, 
fence posts. 

7 Shingles, posts, cooperage, railroad ties, construction work. 

8 Veneering, wheel hubs, construction work. 

9 Tool handles, wheel spokes, agricultural implements, chair seat splits, 
barrel hoops, single and double trees, fuel. 

10 Cabinet making, veneers, interior finish, pattern making. 

11 Flooring, furniture, wooden type, shoe lasts, piano actions, ship keels, 
tool handles, dowel pins. 

12 Wooden ware, furniture, flooring, oars, fuel. 

13 Cabinet work, interior trim, cooperage, agricultural implements, posts, 
construction work. 

14 Heavy building timbers, construction work, interior finish, railroad 
ties, flooring. 

15 Doors, window sash, matches, patterns, telephone poles. 

16 Wooden pumps, furniture, construction work, boats, carriage and 
wagon bodies, toys, coffin boxes. 

17 Paper pulp, sounding boards in miisical instruments, ladders, 
cooperage. 

18 Butcher's blocks, furniture, inside frame work, tobacco boxes. 

19 Gun stocks, cabinet making, veneers, picture frames. 



42 



WOOD FASTENERS 



Figl 



AN 



Common VJirz Noil 

o ^ 



^ 



Wire Brad 



riooring NaiL 



Fig2 




Vlire Gauge 




WOOD FASTENERS 

There are many devices and materials used in fastening 
wood together, such as nails, screws, bolts, glue, dowels, plates, 
hinges, etc. Since each is so different from the other they should 
be discussed separately. 

NAILS 

Nails at one time were cut out of sheet metal, but now most 
nails are made out of wire. Wire of the proper size is fed from 
large coils into a machine which cuts it to the proper length, 
points it at one end and gives it the proper shaped head at the 
other. 

The kind of nails used depends somewhat on the project 
being made. The size is also determined by the size and char- 
acter of the material used. Some kinds of wood split easily, 
therefore the nails must be small in diameter but long enough to 
hold the pieces together. If the wood is hard and compact, a 
nail small in diameter will, in all probability, bend before it 
penetrates the wood to the proper depth. In such a case a hole 
slightly smaller than the nail should be drilled in the wood 
before the nail is driven into it. Some articles require a nail 
with a large head while on some the large head is unnecessary 
and is a disfiguration. 

The shape of the nail indicates the kind of a fastener it is. 
Fig. 1, for instance, the one with the large but flat head is gen- 
erally known as a common wire nail. The one with a head 



NAILS 



43 



■ 












Wire 


Nail Sizes 
















UKiTH 
INCHE5 


W 1 RC NuMBE-KS 1 1 




6 


7 


6 


9 


10 


II 


\z 


13 


14 


15* 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 




14 




























X 


X 


X 


X 




5/ft 


























X 


X 


X 


X 


X 




y? 


















X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 




% 














X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 




% 










X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 






% 






X 


>. 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 








1 




X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 








iXft 




X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 










Wa 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 










\y?. 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 












s'A 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 












2 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 












2i^ 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 












zy? 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 












2 54 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 
























3 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 
























3J4 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 
























^yz. 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 
























4 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 

























smaller in diameter but thicker, is known as the brad or finishing 
nail while the one with the tapering head is the flooring nail. 

The size of a nail is usually indicated by the term "penny," 
as twopenny, fourpenny, etc., written 2d, 4d, etc. This orig- 
inally indicated that one thousand nails would weigh the number 
of pounds indicated by the figure. The size of nails is some- 
times indicated by measure as, 1 — 17. The first figure indicates 
the length in inches and the last figure the size of the wire out 
of which the nail is made, Fig. 2. The larger the wire number 
the smaller the wire. Not all lengths of nails are made in all 
sizes of wire. The accompanying chart shows the range of 
sizes of wire brads up to four inches. The sizes of brads and 
floor nails are indicated by measure only. Special nails are 
designed for special purposes such as trunk nails, roofing nails, 
clout nails, clinch nails, etc. 

When two pieces of wood are to be nailed together, they 
should be placed in position and the kind and size of nails which 
best fill the need selected. Nails driven into the wood at a 
slant, A-Fig. 3, will have much greater holding power than nails 
driven in straight as in B-Fig. 3, especially if slanted in opposite 
directions. The location of the nail points should be well 
selected. Proper placing will insure greater strength. Pleasing 
patterns may also be made by the arrangement of the nail heads. 
A nail placed too close to the end of the wood, C-Fig. 3, forces 
it to break out a piece of the wood. If placed too close to the 



44 



WOOD FASTENERS 



Fig. 4 Screws 

.-^ ^ CO 



1 



i 



/7ot hi^ad Round htad Filliittr head Oval head 



Fig. 5 




Screw Oause 



ng.6 




edge, the wood will split, or if slanted too much the point of 
the nail will project and mar the surface. If the nails are to go 
through cross grained wood only, D-Fig. 3, shorter lengths can 
be used than when the nail is driven partly into end grain as 
in E-Fig. 3. Edge or side grain pinches the nail much tighter 
than end grain, therefore, the holding power is greater. 

Nails should be driven with the hammer until the head is 
almost even with the surface of the wood. They should never 
be driven far enough to dent the wood with the hammer. 

Nails rust when exposed to moisture. If the article being 
nailed is to be exposed to the weather, the nails should be 
driven in until their heads are below the surface of the wood. A 
nail set is used for this purpose, Fig. 1 in section on "Driving 
Tools." The hole left over the nail after it is "set" should be 
filled with putty. 

WOOD SCREWS 

Where two or more pieces of wood which may be subjected 
to any great strain are to be fastened together, or where metal 
is to be held against wood, screws are used as fasteners. There 
are several kinds of screws, the difference being either in the 
shape of the heads or in the kind of material out of which they 
are made. The different shaped heads are flat, round, fillister 
and oval. Fig. 4. Any of these styles can be secured in iron, 
finished bright or blue, or in brass. Screws copper or nickel 
plated are made but are used only in connection with special 
cabinet fittings which are copper or nickel plated. 

The size of a screw is designated with two numbers, for 
example, 1% — 8. The first number indicates the length in 
inches and the second number the size or gauge of the un- 
threaded part of the screw. Fig. 5 illustrates the method of 
gauging the length and size of a screw with a screw gauge. In 
flat head screws the length number indicates the measurement 



WOOD SCREWS 



45 









Iron and Brass Screw 


Sizes 
















UNCTH 
IMCMU 


Gauge, of ScRtw Shank 







1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


s 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


la 


2.0 


Z7 


24 


26 


28 


30 


'/4 


X 


K 


X 


X 


X 










































V6 


X. 


K 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 
































Vz 




X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


\ 


X 


X 


























f'8 




X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


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over all; in round or fillister head screws, that from the screw 
point to the shoulder under the head ; in the oval head, that 
from the screw point to the center of the head. 

Not all lengths of screws can be obtained in all sizes. The 
accompanying chart gives the range of sizes for all wood screws. 
Flat head bright screws are made of iron and polished. Blue 
screws are made in the same way but after being polished they 
are heated in large pans over a furnace and while hot, plunged 
into oil. This gives the metal a bluish color. Brass screws are 
made entirely of brass. They are used instead of bright or blue 
screws in places where moisture exists, since they will not rust. 
They are much softer than either bright or blue screws and are 
easily twisted in two. Their heads are easily marred if the 
screwdriver is not carefully used. Screws are sold by the gross, 
being packed a gross in a box. 

Where two or more pieces of wood are to be fastened 
together, or where metal is to be fastened to wood, holes of 
sufficient size to give clearance to the screws should be bored 
in the piece or pieces through which the screw is to pass. If 
the wood into which the screw is to be anchored is very hard 
a hole slightly smaller in diameter than the screw, should be 
bored to the depth to which the screw is to enter. Since the 
action of the screw point is to separate the fibers, the wood 
will sometimes split if such a hole is not made or in case the 
wood is extremely hard the screw will be twisted in two if 
there is no hole for it to enter. In forcing screws into soft 
wood they are placed through the hole in the first board, that 



46 WOOD FASTENERS 

board is placed in position on the second board and the screw 
given a Hght tap with a hammer or mallet. This engages the 
point. A screw driver is then inserted in the slot in the screw 
head and turned clockwise until the screw draws the pieces of 
wood or wood and metal together. In case flat head screws 
are used the wood should be reamed out with a countersink to 
a suflicient depth to take the screw head. See countersink in 
section on "Boring Tools." 

One should grip the handle of the screw driver firmly when 
driving the screw. At the end of each turn the grip on the 
handle is released, the hand slid backwards around the handle, 
a new grip taken and the screw given another turn. The screw 
driver point should always remain in the slot in the screw until 
the operation is completed. Otherwise the screw head is 
scratched or twisted out of shape. 

When sufficient strength cannot be obtained with the screw 
driver to force the screw into the wood, a screw driver may be 
inserted in the bit brace. This will allow sufficient pressure 
and the sweep of the brace will give greater twisting power. 
The point of the bit will have a tendency to jump out of the 
slot, marring the screw head. This can be avoided if the rachet 
in the brace is adjusted, the brace given a half turn, then, with 
a reverse niotion brought back to the starting position and the 
process repeated. To remove a screw with the brace and bit, 
the rachet should be turned in the opposite direction. 

Screws should never be driven into the wood with a ham- 
mer, beyond the starting point, as the threads tear down the 
fiber structure of the wood and destroy the holding power. Fig. 6. 

If it is hard to turn the screws in the wood, the resistance 
can be cut down by rubbing soap into the threads before start- 
mg the screw into the wood. 

LAG SCREWS 

For very heavy work, lag screws are better and, in some 
cases, necessary. Instead of the head being slotted to hold the 
screw driver, it is made scjuare so that it may be turned with a 
wrench. 1 — j4 is the smallest size of lag screw obtainable and 
the largest is 12 — 1. The first figure indicates the length in 
inches from the screw point to the shoulder under the head, the 
second the diameter in inches of the unthreaded part of the 
screw. They are made of iron and are sold in bulk or in boxes 
containing 100 screws. 



BOLTS 



47 



Fig. 7 

^ ® ^ 



W 



CD 



cx^ cxn c:x:i 



Ro'ind heaa 
Lag Carnage Stove 

Screw " -3o/t&-'- 



fiQt head 
Stova Machine 




BOLTS 
There are several kinds of bolts, those generally used being 
carriage, stove and machine bolts, Fig. 7. The sizes are indi- 
cated in the same manner as those of lag screws. Their con- 
struction is different in that instead of a tapering screw, the 
diameter of their threaded part, which does not taper, is just 
as large as the unthreaded part. Instead of them holding them- 
selves in place in the wood, they are inserted through holes in 
the wood sufficiently large to allow the bolt to pass easily, and 
a nut screwed on the exposed, threaded end. This clamps the 
pieces of wood together firmly. The nuts are made square, 
hexagonal and octagonal. Carriage bolts are made only of iron 
while stove and machine bolts are also made in steel and brass. 
Carriage bolts are round headed and square shanked. The 
square shank keeps the bolt from turning while the nut is 
screwed on, it is therefore very necessary that the hole through 
which the bolt is to be inserted, be small enough to engage the 
corners of this part of the bolt to keep it from turning. The 
heads of stove and machine bolts are slotted the same as screws 
so that they can be kept from turning with the screw driver 
while the nut is screwed on. They can be secured with either 
round or flat heads. 



GLUE 

Screws, bolts, etc., are mechanical wood fasteners. Glue 
works on a different principle. It cements the two parts to- 
gether. All wood is more or less porous and when glue is 
applied it spreads over the surface into the pores. If held 
rigidly in one position until the glue hardens, it is almost im- 
possible to break it apart. 

There are two kinds of glue, animal and vegetable. Animal 
glue is made from the hoofs, horns or hides of animals or from 
the skins of fish. These substances are boiled in lime water to 



48 WOOD FASTENERS 

remove foreign matter and are then thoroughly washed, strained 
and allowed to dry. When almost dry they are sometimes 
shaved into small flakes. This is known as flake glue. After 
glue has been allowed to harden it is sometimes broken into 
chips and sometimes ground into small particles. The former 
kind is known as chip glue and the latter as ground glue. 

Vegetable glue is made from plants containing viscous 
matter. It is manufactured by a secret process. In substance 
it resembles animal glue and it acts in about the same way 
except that it requires the application of greater pressure to the 
parts being glued until it is thoroughly dry. It is especially 
well suited to gluing up veneers. 

To prepare glue for use, the flakes, chips, or ground particles 
are allowed to soak in cold water until the substance becomes 
jelly like. This requires several hours. It is then heated slowly, 
preferably in a double boiler, until it becomes hot and easy 
flowing. An improvised double boiler may be made by setting 
an old baking powder or tomato can containing the glue in a 
somewhat larger vessel of boiling water. Because glue of this 
kind must be applied hot it is referred to as hot glue. 

Liquid glue, sometimes called cold glue, is a glue which is 
kept in solution by the addition of acetic acid. It remains in 
solution until applied to a surface in a thin layer, when it be- 
comes dry and acts in a similar manner to the hot glue. The can 
should be kept tightly closed when not in use or the entire mass 
will harden. 

Glue should always be applied sparingly, but every part of 
each of the surfaces to be glued together must be covered. Glue 
is applied with a brush or flat stick. If only a small amount of 
gluing is to be done, it is better to use a stick. While it is more 
difficult to spread the glue evenly with a stick, cleaning the 
brush of all glue after it is used takes so long and wastes so 
much material that it is hardly justifiable if only a little gluing 
is to be done. To clean a glue brush, wash and rinse it thor- 
oughly in hot water before the glue has been allowed to become 
hard or dry in it. 

DOWELS 
Ordinarily a glued joint will hold as well as any other part 
of the board, but if the surfaces joined together are short and 
the pieces are subjected to much strain, they are reinforced with 
dowels. Dowels are short, round rods or pins of hard wood 
varying in diameter from 3/16" to 1". They usually come 
in rods 36" long and may be cut to any length which 
suits the need. They are inserted in auger bit holes as shown 



HINGES 



49 




in Fig. 8. If the dowel pin fits too snugly the edges of the hole 
will scrape all of the glue off of the dowel pin when it is inserted. 
If too loose it will not give the added strength to the joint. If 
the pin fits tightly its sides should be grooved, as at Fig. 8, with 
a marking gauge. The glue then, instead of being scraped off, 
is forced into the channels cut by the gauge and forms a suffi- 
cient adhesive to hold it firmly against the sides of the hole. 

HINGES 

Hinges are a kind of flexible wood fastener. They fasten 
it rigidly in one direction and allow it to move in another. 
There are several forms of hinges, known as butt, strap, T, table 
or back flap, chest, screen and invisible, Fig. 9. 

The most generally used hinge is the butt. There are two 
kinds ; common, those in which the pin on which they turn is 
riveted over at both ends, and loose pin, those from which the 
pin may be removed and the hinge taken apart. The butt hinge 
is used for hinging boxes and doors or any place where the 
leaves can be set between the two parts to be hinged. The 
advantage of loose pin butts is that a door hung with them can 
be taken off without taking off the hinges. Both loose pin and 
common butt, when set in place, show only the knuckles and 
acorns, while all of the parts of the strap and T hinges are 
visible. Butt hinges must be set into the wood to the depth of 
the thickness of the leaves of the hinge. 

Strap hinges and T hinges fasten onto the exposed faces of 
the parts to be hinged together. Box hinges with fancy leaves 
are a form of strap hinge. 

Back flap or table hinges are different in construction from 
either of the above mentioned in that the knuckles project an 
equal distance on both sides of the leaves while, in the butt, 
strap and T hinges, the backs are flat, Fig. 10. Back flap hinges 
require a great deal of fitting, both in setting the hinge and 



50 



VVUUD i'ASTENERS 




shaping the two pieces of wood so that they fit together when 
closed. 

Chest hinges are shaped to fit around the corner of the lid 
of a chest and the screw holes in the leaves are separated far 
enough in the bent leaf so that the screws do not interfere with 
each other. However, care should be exercised in the selection 
of the screws to see that they are of the proper length. 

Screen hinges, allow the parts hinged together to open either 
way. In the illustration. Fig. 10, the two parts have revolved 
on the knuckles, A-A. When the parts are opened so that the 
two edges touch each other, the knuckles, B-B, are also in line 
with each other, and if the faces, C-C, of the wood were brought 
together as D-D have been in the illustration, the parts would 
\)e hinging on the knuckles, B-B. Hinges of this kind are used 
on folding screens and on doors which must open two ways. 

Invisible hinges are used where it is desired to have a blind 
hinged joint. When the two parts are closed it is impossible to 
tell that a hinge exists. 

LOCKS AND CATCHES 

The principal kinds of locks are door locks, drawer locks, 
chest locks and padlocks. Wardrobe locks and night latches are 
forms of the door lock. Each kind of lock may be made in 
various types of construction, the two principal ones being com- 
mon and cylinder. Each type of construction requires a differ- 
ent kind of key. Some of the locks are mortised into the wood 
and others are merely fastened onto it. The padlock is an ex- 
ception, it being hooked through a staple, over a hasp. Fig. 11 
shows various kinds and styles of locks and keys. 

If it is not necessary to open a door from both sides, it may 
be held shut with a catch. Some catches open by turning a 
knob, others by sliding a bar and others by lifting a catch. Fig. 
12 shows various styles of catches. 



PLATES 



51 





Fig 13 








© @ © @ 






riat P/Qtz 


© 
® 

-on 








© © 


© 
© 


Corner 

Ang/e It 



Staple 



Tig. 14 



fr^ f9. 



fscutcheon Pin 




Corrugated Fastener 



PLATES 

Pieces of wood are sometimes fastened together with metal 
plates. There are three kinds in general use, i.e., flat plates, 
corner irons and angle irons. Often there are special plates 
made to fit special places. Plates as a rule are used to reinforce 
joints which have been fastened together with some other kind of 
wood fasteners. 



STAPLES, ESCUTCHEON PINS, CORRUGATED 

EASTENERS 

Staples are pieces of wire bent U-shape and both ends 
pointed. They come in various lengths and sizes of wire. They 
are used for fastening wire or wire netting to wood. They are 
driven into the wood with a hammer. Large staples are some- 
times used for fastening a door hasp to a door when the door 
is thin enough to allow the points of the staple to project 
through it so that they can be bent over, thus riveting the hasp 
in place. 

Escutcheon pins are round headed nails usually made of 
brass. Their real purpose is for fastening escutcheons, the pro- 
tecting plate around the keyhole of a lock, bat they are often 
used for fastening on light box hinges where the projecting ends 
can be bent over on the inside of the box. 

Corrugated fasteners are used to reinforce or to give added 
strength to two pieces of wood joined together edgewise. They 
should not be used unless the edges have first been glued or 
nailed together. The fastener, sharp edge down, is placed half 
over each piece of wood and driven in with a hammer. Since 
the pounding sometimes breaks apart the nailed or glued joint, 
it is well to clamp the pieces together while driving in the 
fastener. Corrugated fasteners come in lengths ranging from 
-yii" to 1" and in widths from 1 to 4 corrugations inclusive. 



52 



SAND PAPER 



F/at Sanc/paptr^ 




SAND PAPER 

Articles made of wood must be perfectly smooth before they 
can be stained, painted or varnished. This is usually done with 
the plane and scraper but often an additional smoothing is 
accomplished by the use of sand paper. 

Sand paper is a tough paper coated on one side with glue 
and crushed flint or quartz. This crushed flint resembles sand. 
The particles are sharp edged and of irregular shape and quite 
hard. They are graded in sizes 000 to 3 by being sifted through 
screens having openings of different sizes. A thick glue is 
applied to one side of the paper and the crushed flint sprinkled 
evenly over it. After this is thoroughly dry a second coat of 
very thin glue is applied over the sand side to make sure that 
every particle is fastened to the paper. 

In sand papering the surface of hard wood, garnet paper is 
better than flint paper. While the crystals are not quite as 
sharp, they are much harder and consequently wear better. It 
is made in the same way as sand paper. Sand' paper and garnet 
paper are sold in rolls or in sheets. 

When the sand paper is rubbed over the surface of the 
wood the sharp edges of the flint or garnet, cut or comb down 
the libers of the wood. Since the fibers in the wood run in a 
certain direction, it is very important that the sand papering be 
done in the same direction, for, if sand papered across the lines 
of fiber the surface of the wood will be made rough instead of 
smooth. 

To give a true surface the sand papering must be done with 
an even pressure over the entire surface. Otherwise the corners 
and edges will be rounded. This true surface can be secured 
by holding a small piece of sand paper around a block shaped 
as in Fig. 1. The pressure of the fingers against the slanting 
sides of the block keeps the paper tightly stretched. 

Sand paper should always be torn, never cut, since the 
particles of flint would destroy the edge of any knife or pair of 
shears. In order to tear it straight it should be placed sand side 
down on a flat surface with a rule or straight edge upon it at 



WOOD FINISHES 



53 




the desired place. By holding the rule firmly in this position 
and pulling upward on the paper at the corner marked X-Fig. 2 
the result will be accomplished. 

To smooth curved surfaces, a piece of sand paper should be 
wrapped about a round stick as in Fig. 3. 

Where only a limited supply of sand paper can be kept on 
hand No. 1 or No. 1^ will be found suitable for practically all 
purposes. 

WOOD FINISHES 

"Wood finish" is a term used to designate various substances 
which are applied to the surface of wood either to color it or to 
protect and preserve it from the elements which would tend to 
destroy its mechanical properties as well as its natural beauty. 
Wood finishes are divided into several classes, i.e., paint, stain, 
filler, varnish and wax. The application of stain changes the 
color of wood but does not hide the grain, because stain is trans- 
parent. Paint changes the color and also hides the grain ; in 
other words, it is opaque. Filler, as the name implies, fills up 
the pores in the wood, making the surface smooth. Stain is 
sometimes combined with filler so that with one operation the 
object is filled and stained. Varnish is applied to give a hard, 
smooth, glossy surface and to keep out moisture. Wax is some- 
times used instead of varnish, giving the surface a slick but not 
as glossy a finish as varnish. 

The use to which an object is to be put and the kind of 
wood out of which it is to be made determine whether it is 
better to stain or to paint it. Woods having prominent grain are 
usually stained because of the transparency of the coloring mat- 
ter in the stain, but to preserve the wood, stained articles should 
also be varnished or waxed and sometimes filled. Wood having 
an uninteresting grain is usually painted. Practically all objects 
used out of doors are painted because the paint better with- 
stands exposure. 

The principal ingredients in paint are white lead, linseed 
oil, coloring pigment, turpentine and drier. The white lead 
gives body and covering power to the paint, the pigment colors 



54 



WOOD FINISHES 



Fig. 4 






5aih on imall itain Brush 




flat l/arniih. Stain or Paint Brubh 



Hound Varniifj Brush 



Fie. 5 




it, the linseed oil furnishes the liquid carriage which floats the 
pigment and lead over the surface and it also acts as a binder 
to hold them onto the surface. The turpentine thins the mixture 
so that it can be easily applied with a brush and the drier helps 
to dry the paint after it has been applied to the surface. Paint 
may be made by mixing the above mentioned ingredients 
together or it may be purchased ready mixed. Since the lead 
is very heavy, it settles to the bottom of the container. The 
paint should therefore be thoroughly stirred before being used. 
When it is well mixed it is applied to the surface to be painted 
with a bristle brush of a size and shape suited to the kind of 
work. Fig. 4. 

The surface to be painted should be previously smoothed 
with sand paper and nail holes or small defects in the wood, 
filled with putty. (See putty in section on "Glazing.") Knots 
should be shellaced to prevent the rosin from oozing out. Paint 
is applied by dipping the fiber end of the brush into the can or 
bucket, allowing only a portion of the fibers to enter the paint. 
The brush should never be allowed to go into the paint up to 
the metal sheath and in no case should the paint be stirred with 
the brush. Even with only a portion of the fd^ers entering the 
paint too much of it will enter the brush. It is therefore neces- 
sary to remove the excess. This should be done by pressing 
the fibers against the inside of the container as at A-Fig. 5, 
allowing the extra amount of paint to run back. The brush 
should never be dragged over the edge of the bucket as illus- 
trated in B-Fig. 5, for while a large part of the paint will go 
back into the bucket, it is almost impossible to keep some of it 
from running down over the outside. Should paint at any time 
get on the handle or sheath of the brush it should immediately 
be wiped clean with a cloth or bit of waste. 

When the brush is charged with the proper amount of paint 
it is drawn back and forth over the surface until the paint ir. 
thoroughly worked in and spread evenly over the surface. There 



STAINS 55 

is danger, however, of overbrushing the paint and making it 
bubble and consequently become rough. 

Wood, when painted for the first time, will require two or 
more coats in order to cover it well, but surfaces which have 
been painted before are not so porous and one coat may suffice. 

Different formulas are used for the making of stain but 
they are all alike in that they are all semi-transparent and con- 
tain coloring matter which changes the appearance or color of 
wood. The coloring matter is dissolved in an easy flowing 
liquid which makes possible an even distribution of the color 
over the surface to which it is applied. This liquid usually 
evaporates rather quickly. Stain also contains a "binder," a 
substance which remains after the liquid has evaporated, and 
holds the color in the wood. 

In selecting a stain, the material out of which the project 
is made must be considered. A soft, porous wood will take a 
stain which penetrates slowly, while a close fibered, hard wood 
often resists the most penetrating kind of stain. The natural 
color of wood often changes the appearance of a stain. A stain 
which appears to be of a light golden color when applied on oak, 
will be so affected by the greenish color of the wood that it will 
appear to be a dull, dirty brown when applied to poplar. 

Stain should never be applied too lavishly. The wood will 
absorb only a certain amount which should be of such consist- 
ency that it flows and penetrates easily. In some cases it is 
necessary to remove the excess from the stained surface with 
waste or rags after the stain has had sufficient time to soak in 
but this process should not be delayed until the liquid has fully 
evaporated because the surface will become gummy. 

Surfaces to be stained should be smooth and free from finger 
marks, pencil marks, grease, etc. (see sections on "Planes" and 
"Sandpaper"). If the surface to be stained has been sand- 
papered the stain should not be applied until the pores of the 
wood have had a chance to reopen. If the stain is applied too 
foon after sandpapering there is danger of the pores being 
clogged with the sandpaper dust and so closed and crushed 
that they will not allow the stain to penetrate deeply enough 
lo be permanent. 

Most stains settle in the can because some of the materials 
in them are heavier than others, consequently the container 
should be shaken or well stirred before the stain is used. A 
sufficient amount of stain to cover the project should be poured 
into an open mouthed can or bucket. Waste or cloths should 
be at hand ready for wiping off the surplus at the proper time. 



56 WOOD FINISHES 

Papers should be spread under the project to be stained unless 
there is a\aihible a metal covered staining table which can be 
wiped clean after the staining is dcjne. 

The brush is charged with stain in exactly the same way as 
with paint and equal care should be exercised in handling it, 
especially since stain is much thinner than paint and will run 
more easily. Stain is applied to the wood by placing the brush 
saturated with stain at one end of the board and drawing it 
slowly toward the center in the direction of the grain, Fig. 1. 
The brush should be pulled over the wood slowly enough to 
allow the stain to soak in. When the stroke has covered about 
half the length of the piece c^f wood the brush should be lifted 
and a second stroke which slightly overlaps the first, made, Fig. 
2. When one-half of the surface has been covered in this way the 
work should be turned around and stained from the other end 
in a similar manner. The brush should never be rubbed back 
and forth over the wood or drawn from the center of the wood 
toward the edge or end because the fibers will spatter the stain 
as in Fig. 3. 

The brush should never be laid down with paint, stain or 
varnish in it nor allowed to stand in any of these materials. The 
brush should never be laid across the bucket from side to side. 
A small stick or wire placed across the top of the bucket as in 
Fig. 6 makes a good rest for the brush for then if the paint, stain 
or varnish should drip from the brush it will go back into the 
bucket. 

After all parts of the project have been painted, stained or 
varnished the unused material in the bucket should be poured 
back into the original container which should be tightly closed 
in order to keep the contents from evaporating. The bucket 
should then be wiped clean and bright. Brushes should be 
washed in a solution similar to the licjuid out of which the 
material is made, i.e., turpentine, for paint, varnish and oil stain, 
alcohol for spirit stain and water for water stain. Great care 
should be exercised in disposing of all oily rags, since heat is 
often generated in them, resulting in fire. 

There are two kinds of filler, liquid and paste. Liquid filler 
is composed of shellac gum dissolved in alcohol. Paste filler is 
made of silex and linseed oil. Silex is a mineral which does not 
expand or contract under changing atmospheric conditions. 
When worked into the wood with a brush stroke in the direction 
of the grain the sharp angled particles of silex anchor in every 
crevice. The surplus is then wiped ofif and the surface appears 
even and smooth. Liquid filler is also applied with a brush. 
It is thinner than paste filler and therefore will fill up smaller 



VARNISH 



57 




crevices. It is allowed to become thoroughly hard and the 
roughness is then rubbed off with fine sandpaper. Fillers are 
always applied before the wood is varnished and sometimes 
before the wood is stained. 

Varnishes are made by melting certain vegetable gums and 
then cooking them in linseed oil and turpentine. They have to 
be thoroughly filtered. They must stand many months before 
they are ready to be used. This is called seasoning. They are 
applied in a way similar to that in which paint and stain are 
applied except that they are floated onto the surface with as 
little brushing as possible. Varnishes are very sticky and slow 
drying, therefore articles being varnished must be kept in rooms 
as near dust proof as possible. Varnish dries best in rooms mod- 
erately heated. 

Finishing wax is used either over stained surfaces or sur- 
faces filled with liquid filler. It is made of vegetable wax dis- 
solved in a liquid which evaporates quickly after it has been 
applied to wood, leaving a thin scum of the wax on the surface. 
It is best applied by taking a small portion of the wax out of 
the can, placing it on a double thickness of cloth and wrapping 
the cloth around it. Figs. 7 and 8. Holding the loo"se ends of 
the pieces of cloth between the fingers and rubbing it over the 
surface to be waxed will force the wax through the cloth a little 
at a time. When the entire surface has been covered thus the 
wax should be allowed to dry and then polished with a stiff 
brush or cloth. Wax may be applied with a brush but it is 
wasteful of material and it is hard to regulate the amount put 
on the surface. 



58 



GLASS AND WINDOW GLAZING 

Of the many materials used in constructive work, glass does 
not often attract much attention, nevertheless its place in the 
world is very important. Without it large builidngs would not 
be practicable for it is the window glass that permits them to 
be lighted by day and the glass light bulb, shade or chimney 
which makes possible their illumination at night. Even the 
electric current could not be brought into a building if it were 
not for the glass or porcelain insulators. Science has been 
greatly advanced by the use of glass, for the success of the 
microscope, telescope and camera are dependent upon their 
glass lenses. Many eyes have been saved and many pains re- 
moved through the use of spectacles. Bottles, dishes, buttons, 
beads, door knobs, sanitary hospital appliances, mirrors, etc., are 
in existence because of the discovery of how to transform cer- 
tain elements into glass. Just when this discovery was made 
no one knows, but pieces of glass which are over six thousand 
years old have been found in Egypt. 

Of the entire amount of glass produced the greater portion is 
window glass. It varies in kind, quality and use. Very thin 
glass (single strength) is used in picture frames, heavier glass 
(double strength) is used in ordinary windows, hot houses, hot 
beds and cheap show cases, and very heavy glass (plate glass) 
is used in large windows, in mirrors and in the better grade of 
show cases. Semi-transparent glass for windows is produced 
with different surfaces, such as frosted or ribbed and for sky 
lights and elevator shafts a glass reinforced with a wire webbing 
is made. 

While the elements which enter into the making of glass 
are always about the same, the method of manufacture is entirely 
different. Ordinary window glass is blown by men or by 
machines, into cylindrical forms and then flattened into sheets, 
while plate glass is not blown, but is rolled into sheets or plates. 
Glass is made by fusing under intense heat, a mixture of soda, 
lime and sand. It takes from fourteen to twenty hours to prop- 
erly melt a "batch." For blown glass the ingredients are melted 
together in vats in huge furnaces. When the molten mass is 
ready, if it is to be blown by men, a small portion of it is dipped 
out, through a door in the furnace, on the end of a blow pipe. 
The workman, to protect his face from the blistering heat and 
intense light from the open door, carries a mask, A- Fig. 1, which 
he holds in ])lace with his teeth. The blow pipe is constantly 
revolved tf) kee]i the ball of molten glass from falling off. This 



GLASi 



59 



A^ Fig. 1 



B 



:;^ jbetwee/1 the teeth 
■hi ow pipe 




Molten g/<33>5 




mass weighs from twenty to forty pounds and as it begins to 
solidify it is twisted and turned over an iron mould until it 
assumes a pear shape, B-Fig. 1. It is then passed on to the 
glass blower who stands by a deep pit with the blow pipe and 
glass ball suspended into the pit. Blowing gently at first he 
swings the pipe back and forth like the pendulum of a clock and 
at the same time gives it a rotary motion. This gradually 
changes the shape of the molten mass to a long, hollow cylinder, 
having walls of even thickness at every point. If the cylinder 
begins to lengthen too much the blower swings the pipe and 
glass over his head, still blowing and revolvmg it. 

When the desired length of cylinder and the proper thick- 
ness of glass is obtained the far end of the cylinder is reheated 
and cut ofif. When the glass has become firm enough it is 
placed on a wooden rack and the blow pipe loosened by touch- 
ing it with a cold iron. This same end of the cylinder is then 
cracked off true by passing a heated wire around it and touching 
the glass with a moistened finger. The cylinder is then opened 
lengthwise by passing a red hot iron from end to end down the 
inside. Fig. 2. 

This open cylinder is next placed in an oven on a flat stone 
slab. The heat naturally unrolls the glass and it is pressed out 
fiat with a wooden block on a long rod thrust through the door 
of the oven. When the glass becomes flat it passes on to the 
annealing oven where it is gradually cooled. If cooled too 
quickly it becomes very brittle. From the annealing oven it is 
inspected, marked and cut to various sizes. Seldom is a cylinder 
found without flaws, so the cutter cuts around the flaws, first 
getting out the larger panes, then the smaller ones. The cutting 
is done either with an instrument having a diamond point or a 
highly carbonized steel roller. 

Machine blown glass is produced by the same process except 
that the machine automatically dips the blow pipe into the 
molten metal, shapes it and blows it. One man, attending a 



60 



GLASS AND WINDOW GLAZING 




glass blowing machine, can produce about three times as much 
glass as a mouth blower. Machine blown cylinders are about 
twenty-five feet long and two feet in diameter while mouth 
blown cylinders at best never reach more than ten or twelve 
feet in length and eighteen inches in diameter. The surface of 
blown glass is glossy and smooth. 

The materials out of which plate glass is made are melted 
together in large clay crucibles. When the materials are prop- 
erly melted together, huge traveling cranes pick-up and carry 
the crucible to the plate glass machine where the contents is 
poured out on a large metal table. A huge metal roller is tiien 
passed over it, flattening the mass into a plate two or three 
times as thick as blown glass. The surface produced in this 
way is rough and only semi-transparent. This plate of glass is 
then sent through the annealing oven, after which it is anchored 
onto a large revolving table with plaster of Paris and the upper 
surface ground off smooth and true with sand stone. The glass 
is then reversed and the other side ground. After being ground 
smooth the surface is polished on revolving tables with revolving 
buffers and rouge. It is then inspected and cut to standard 
sizes the same as blown glass. 

Glass is usually held in place in windows in a wooden frame 
called a sash, but with the diminishing use of wood and the 
increasing use of metal it is probable that in a few years nearly 
all window sashes will be made of metal. 

Placing the window glass in the sash is called "glazing." 
If glass of the correct size cannot be obtained it may be cut to 
fit by placing it on a flat surface and, at the proper place, scoring 
a line with a glass cutter, Fig. 3, along a straight edge. In doing 
this, one should be careful that the scored line reaches com- 
pletely from edge to edge. Enough pressure should be applied 
to score the line at one operation. To try to score the same line 
the second time is apt to be disastrous. Once the glass is scored 
it is held in the hands, scored side up, and cracked apart as in 



GLAZING 



61 




Fig. 


6 


/*&«?/# 


fift/ihet/ putfif ^ 

Olozitr point ^.,---'"*^~ ^5* 


g 


^erru/e. /T^ 


fo^i^^^^^^^i 


^E= 


^P^^ 


WoM 







Fig. 4. If it fails to respond to this treatment, it should be 
lightly tapped with the handle of the cutter on the under side 
of the glass near the scored line. If any small part fails to 
break off at the scored line, that part is broken off with the 
glass cutter as shown in Fig. 5. 

To glaze a window the sash is, if possible, removed and 
placed rabbeted side up, all old putty and glass removed, and 
the new pane fitted in and fastened with glazier or zinc points. 
These points are flat triangular-shaped pieces of metal made of 
zinc so that they will not rust when- exposed to the weather. 
They come in sizes to 3 inclusive (0 being the larger), 5^-lb. 
to the paper, or they can be bought in bulk. They are laid in 
place on the glass and driven about half way into the sash with 
any kind of flat instrument which can be slid along the glass. 
A cold chisel is a good tool for driving in these points. A suffi- 
cient number of points are placed around the sash to hold the 
glass firmly. The glazier points and edges of the glass are then 
puttied over as shown in Fig. 6, the putty knife being drawn 
along the edge, forcing the putty into every crack and crevice. 
The surface left should be quite smooth. 

Putty is made by mixing together whiting and boiled linseed 
oil, to the consistency of dough. The air oxidizes the oil, leaving 
the whiting almost as hard as stone. Since the air hardens putty 
it should be kept in an air-tight container until needed for use. 
If it is too stiff to work well, it may be softened by simply 
kneading it with the fingers. If this does not soften enough, a 
drop or two of boiled linseed oil may be added and worked 
into it. 



62 



CHAIR SEATING 



Cane Pa/m | 


/V/V^-^ 


f 


1 \ i '^ (0^ 


3arM- — " 


Top view -) 


r ^ . A Section A- A 
1 g^ Titit Oval Holftound Round 


%. 1 


Strip oj 


Shapei of rattan 



CHAIR SEATING 

Wooden seated chairs are durable and if properly shaped 
they are comfortable, but they are heavy and sometimes ugly in 
appearance. Various other methods are used in seating chairs, 
among them weaving, upholstering and the application of pre- 
pared seatings. 

There are several ways of weaving seats in chairs and many 
different kinds of materials are used. Any material which is 
strong, flexible and tough, and which is made or can be secured 
in shapes convenient for weaving, can be used for seating chairs. 
The commonly used materials are cane, rush, reed, rope and 
hickory split. Cane, perhaps, is the most widely used. It is 
made from the outer covering or bark of a certain specie of palm. 
This grows in dense forests in India, China, Ceylon and the 
Indian Islands. The plants sometimes grow very tall and then 
fall to the ground, trailing" like vines. They frequently reach a 
length of several hundred feet without a branch and without de- 
veloping to a diameter of more than one inch. The bark is very 
thin and its outer surface is quite hard and slick. The woody 
part grows in a different way, and its appearance is quite differ- 
ent from that of ordinary wood. In texture it is much softer 
than wood and is very porous but much tougher than all woods 
except hickory. 

The vine like stems of the plant are cut by the natives into 
lengths of ten to twenty feet, washed, made into bundles and 
shipped to various European countries and America. The bark 
is then stripped off and cut into varying widths from ^V" to 
W" and tied into bundles or hanks of 1,000 lineal feet. The re- 
maining part is cut into different shapes and sizes, Fig. 1. The 
strips made from the bark are known as chair cane and the 
material made from the pith or woody part is called reed or 
rattan. 



CANING 



63 



o i; 


i 


fl « « o 1 




















° 














^ 


" 














"^ 


- 














o 


o ,« 


i 


<!: 




<i 





Fig. 2 P^ 5fe/> 





Under side. 

Fig. 3 




DIAMOND PATTERN WEAVING 

There are several ways of weaving the seat of a chair with 
cane. The most common is the diamond pattern. For this kind 
of weaving the chair seat must, first of all, be prepared. If on 
new work, holes fV" ^^^ diameter must be bored around the seat 
frame j/^" apart and ^i" away from the inner edge. Unless the 
utmost care is used in locating and boring these holes, an im- 
perfect pattern will be the result in the finished weaving. If an 
old chair is to be reseated, all of the old cane must be cut out, 
the holes thoroughly cleared and the seat frame washed and, if 
need be, varnished. 

The woven seat of a chair should be quite tight. This is 
chiefly accomplished by having the cane wet while weaving it. 
The moisture expands it and after evaporating causes the cane 
to stretch very tightly. Fifteen or twenty minutes is a sufficient 
amount of time for soaking the cane. If allowed to remain in the 
water too long it will become discolored and also lose its strength. 

About all the equipment one needs in this work is a knife 
and an awl. An awl can be made out of a long brad with a piece 
of wood for a handle. Several round pegs, about Xy^" long and 
tapering from )/%" to Y^" should be whittled out of wood. 

Caning a chair can be divided into seven consecutive steps. 
First step. After soaking the cane as already directed, it should 
be held glossy side up, and one end put down through a hole 
at the back of the chair seat, (allowing it to project about three 
inches below the seat frame), and fastened with a peg. The 
other end of the cane should be inserted through a hole in the 
front of the seat which is exactly opposite the starting hole in 
the back. In case a chair has a round seat, unusual precaution 
must be taken to see that the holes exactly opposite each other 
are used in starting or the entire pattern will be a failure. The 
entire strand of cane should be pulled through the hole, care 
being taken to avoid getting kinks or twists in it, the cane made 



64 



CPIAIR SEATING 




tight and a peg inserted to hold it in place. This stretched strand 
should be picked with the fingers to test the tightness as the 
string of a musical instrument is tested. The long end of the 
strand should then be brought up through the next hole and 
across the seat, stretched and pegged and then inserted through 
succeeding pairs of holes until the entire seat is covered with 
parallel rows of cane from front to back, Fig. 2. After a few 
pegs have been inserted, the second peg (never the first) and 
those following it can be removed and used over again. When 
one strand of cane is used up, the last hole through which the 
cane passes should be pegged and a new strand started in the 
hole next to it. The loose ends under the chair are fastened by 
drawing them under the nearest span on the under side of the 
seat as shown in Fig. 3. 

Second step. Proceeding as in step one, parallel strands of 
cane should be laid across the chair seat from side to side and 
on top of those in the first step. Fig. 4. 




CANING 



65 








—^ ^ - — 


V^ Fig. 11 



Third step. The strands of cane in this step are laid from 
front to back exactly as in the first operation, the strands from 
side to side thus Joeing- left between those placed in the first and 
third steps, Fig. 5. 

Fourth step. The real weaving now begins from side to 
side. With one hand below the seat and the other above, the 
end of the cane, after passing through a hole from the bottom 
of the seat, is forced between the top and bottom strands of each 
pair which run from front to back, in every case passing under 
the strands of the first or bottom layer and over the strands of 
the third layer of cane. At the same time the weaver must be 
placed at the nearest side of the strands which lie between the 
pairs and which run from side to side, Fig. 6. Failure to do this 
will spoil the pattern. If the holes become clogged with cane so 
that the ends of the strands will not pass through easily, they 
may be cleared by inserting the awl, but the awl should only 
separate and not puncture or tear the cane in the holes or it will 
weaken the finished seat. After all the strands of the fourth 






/ Webbing^ 



5p//ne 



yedge 

Hovelled 
end 



Fi0.15 




66 



:hair seating 




group have been woven in, the entire seat of cane should be 
moistened and the strands both ways shoved together in pairs. 

Fifth step. This step is also a weaving step but instead of 
the weaver passing over one and then under one as in the fourth 
passes first over two and then under two or vice versa, depends 
on the little pattern formed where the horizontal and vertical 
pairs cross. This diagonal weaver should be placed so that it 
passes over the pair which, when it is pulled tight, will allow it 
to remain in a straight line sliding in the square formed as in 
Figs. 7 and 8 and not as in Fig. 9. Once the first diagonal is 
correctly placed the others follow easily because if the diagonal 
goes over the strands stretched from front to back, it will go 
under all strands stretched from side to side or vice versa. All 
diagonals running in one direction should be woven in before 
any weaving is done with the cross diagonal. 

Sixth step. The cross diagonals, which complete the pat- 
tern, Fig. 10, are woven in exactly the same manner as the first 
diagonals. If that part of the seat which has been made is too 
tight to permit the weaver pulling through easily, the entire 
cane part of the seat should be sponged. 

Seventh step. To hide the holes and make the edges of the 
work look neater, a binder of wide cane is laid on as at Fig. 11 
and held in place with a piece of cane brought up through a hole 
on one side of the binder and down through the same hole on 
the other side of the binder and then into the next hole and into 
each successive hole until the entire edge is covered. 

CANE WEBBING 

Cane webbing is the name applied to cane woven by machin- 
ery. It can be purchased by the yard in widths from 8" to 18" 
increasing in units of 2". It can be secured in the diamond or 
plain pattern, Fig. 12. Chairs caned with webbing do not re- 
quire holes in the seat frame. Instead a groove %" wide and 



WEAVING 



67 



Fig. 18 




Fig. 19 




Fig. 20 




3%" deep is made, Yz" away from the inner edge of the seat 
frame. The webbing is thoroughly soaked, preferably in hot 
water, and then cut one-half inch larger all around than the 
shape formed by the grooves in the seat frame. It is then laid 
on the seat frame and the strands running parallel to the 
grooves, but outside of them, are ravelled out. The cane is 
placed so that the lines of thd pattern parallel the front edge of 
the chair. With a wedge slightly narrower than the groove 
and a mallet, the ends of the cane .are forced into the groove, 
first at the front, then at the back and then at either side and 
last at the corners. This temporarily holds the webbing in 
place. Fig. 13. The loose ends of the cane are then cut off with 
a chisel as in Fig. 14. A heavy coat of glue is next put into the 
groove and a spline shaped as at Fig. 15 and made either of 
wood or rattan is driven in. As soon as the glue hardens this 
kind of seat becomes very secure. 

RUSH SEATING 
In this kind of weaving seats made of rope or twisted paper 
are formed by winding the material around the upper part or 
frame work of the stool or chair instead of inserting it through 
holes made in the seat frame. Figs. 16 and 17 show the succes- 
sive steps in weaving chair seats and stool tops in this way. 
Stool and chair seats are sometimes made in this way of hemp 
rope or heavy cord. Rush, corn husks, raffia and paper, if 
twisted into cords or ropes of sufficient size and length, may 
also be used. To preserve them and to keep them from untwist- 
ing, seats made of such materials should be varnished with a 
pliable varnish after they are finished. 

BASKET WEAVE 
Seats made of hickory splits or reed are woven somewhat 
differently. Splits are long, ribbon like strips of hickory. Reed 
has already been described under chair caning. Like the rope 



68 



CHAIR SEATING 



Fig. 21 

3tat box 



Tront fail- 




Side rail 



3acM rail 



Section from^ront to bacl< 




Fig. 22 



' to ¥/ftbinq 



Sack t^il 



Miction from front to back 



or fibre seats, they are bound around the upper part of the frame. 
Different patterns can be made by changing the order of weav- 
ing. A plain weave is made by weaving over one and under one. 
By weaving in series, such as over one and then under three, a 
different appearing pattern is produced. Diagonal effects are 
produced by the following method of weaving. 

Strand No. 1 over one then under two then over two, etc. 

Strand No. 2 over two then under two then over two, etc. 

Strand No. 3 under one then over two then under two, etc. 

Strand No. 4 under two then over two then under two, etc. 

The weaving is started by tacking one end of the weaver 
firmly under the edge of the frame and then winding the reed, 
rush, cane or splits around it close together in parallel rows in 
one direction, usually the longest one, until the entire seat is 
covered. Fig. 18. Since it will be necessary for these rows of 
material to bend over and under the weavers when they are in- 
serted, they should not be pulled very tight but they should all 
be of uniform tightness. The cross weavers cannot be laid as 
close together so after each strand is woven, the round or bar 
in the seat is given a single wrap with the weaver before the 
process is continued, B-Fig. 19. Weaving a stool top in this 
manner produces a double top and the weaving must be watched 
on the under side as well as on the top. It can be made much 
more durable if the center is stuffed with corn husks before all 
of the weaving is completed. If it is difficult to force the end of 
the weaver through, a blade like stick will separate the strands 
permitting it to pass easily. 

If the double top is not desired, a single thickness top taking 
only a little more than half the amount of material used in the 
double top can be made, provided there are two rails on each 



UPHOLSTERING 



69 




side and end of the stool. Instead of the material being wound 
around and around it is taken across the top, down on the out- 
side of the second rail, up between the two rails, over the top 
one and across to the other side of the stool where the operation 
is repeated. Fig. 20. 

Stools or chairs seated with reed appear fuzzy because small 
threads of the fibre pull loose. The largest ones of these should 
be clipped off with scissors and the smaller ones singed with a 
lighted paper or candle. The reed burns and scorches easily, 
therefore this singeing should be done quickly. 

UPHOLSTERING 

Upholstering a seat is an entirely different task. That the 
materials which can be used are so many and varied, accounts for 
the fact that the greater part of our furniture today is uphol- 
stered. The ease and comfort of an upholstered chair may also 
be in part responsible. 

The tools needed for simple upholstery work are scissors, 
knife, tack hammer, awl and stretcher. The materials used are 
webbing, springs, canvass, cotton, curled hair, tacks (both round 
and upholstering), staples, gimp, cord and covering materials 
such as fabrics, leather or imitation leather. 

The frame work of the chair or stool, if it is to contain 
springs, should consist of a box deep enough to hold the springs. 
This may be a part of the chair or it may be a separate box, 
upholstered and set in the chair frame. If the tops of the legs 
project into the box, it will be necessary to glue and nail in 
corner blocks to which the upholstering can be tacked, A-Fig. 2L 
Springs come in heights from three to sixteen inches. The box 
should be half as deep as the springs are high. If the box of 



70 



CHAIR SEATING 




the chair is deep enough to allow slats of wood to be nailed in 
it to hold the springs, it makes a more substantial seat, Fig. 21. 
If there is not enough room for the wooden slats, double strips 
of webbing are stretched across and nailed to the frame with 
staples. Staples will hold a group of threads running the long 
way of the webbing, while tacks will only separate the threads 
and force all the strain upon the cross threads. Fig. 22 shows 
the under side of a chair seat with webbing in place ready for 
the springs. 

A sufficient number of springs should be selected to hold the 
seat covering up. The number needed will depend upon the 
size of the seat box. If possible the springs should be placed at 
about equal distances in from the edge of the seat box. If 
wooden slats are used the springs are fastened to them with wire 
staples. If the bottom is made of webbing, the springs are 
sewed to it with heavy cord, each spring being fastened in about 
four places. After the springs are securely fastened to the bot- 
tom of the seat, the tops of the springs are tied together with 
strong cord as indicated in Fig. 22). Wherever the cord crosses 
a spring or another section of the cord, the two are tied together 
to prevent wear. The ends of the cords are then fastened to the 
top of the seat frame with staples. 

Before fastening these cords the springs should be pressed 
down slightly so that after the cords are fastened the released 
springs will stretch them tight. 

Next, a piece of heavy burlap several inches larger than the 
seat is spread over the springs and tacked to the top edge of the 
box with four ounce tacks. This burlap should be stretched 
smooth but not so tight as to further compress the springs. As 
all of the pull should come on the cord it will be easier to get 



PREPARED SEATINGS 71 

this burlap smooth if it is stretched over the springs and tacked 
as at A-Fig. 24 and then folded back, B-Fig. 24 and again tacked. 
This will also make a stronger fastening for the burlap. 

The stuffing, either tow, dried sea moss, hair, shredded 
husks or other similar material, which can be arranged to form 
a bulky, springy mass, is next separated sufficiently to make it 
flufify and placed in a layer over the entire top. In fluffing this 
material it should be kept in one large mass and in no case used 
in small balls or wads. This layer of stuffing should be of uni- 
form thickness and it should extend slightly over the edge of 
the seat box. 

A light weight burlap is next spread over the top and "slip 
tacked" (tacks driven in only part way so that they can easily 
be pulled out) with a few tacks on each side. The stuffing 
should be pushed back a little during this operation, but the 
closer to the edge of the box it comes, the better will be the fin- 
ished seat. The corners of this piece of burlap will have to be 
cut away around the corner posts but it must fit as snugly as 
possible. With the regulator, a long, sharp wire or needle, the 
stuffing may be shifted from one point to another by inserting 
the point of the tool down through the burlap and moving the 
stuffing with a prying motion, Fig. 25. 

The upholstering material should be carefully cut to size 
and shape and placed smoothly over the padded seat. If it is a 
material which ravels easily, the edge should be turned under as 
it is tacked on. This top covering should be brought down over 
the edge as at A-Fig. 26. Care must be taken that the tacked 
edge is straight and parallel to the upper edge of the box. The 
edge of the upholstering is covered with a gimp binding which 
harmonizes with it in texture, quality and color. This binding is 
tacked in place with upholstering tacks which are also of a 
color and kind in keeping with the covering material. These 
tacks should be evenly spaced apart. The gimp binding must be 
carefully folded when it is put around the corner posts and se- 
curely tacked in place into the corner blocks. 

PREPARED SEATINGS 

Prepared seats can be secured in varying shapes and sizes 
to suit different kinds of chairs. They are made of embossed 
leather, of imitation leather (made of paper), and of wood ve- 
neer. They are tacked around the edge of the opening in the 
seat frame with fancy headed upholstering tacks. The heads of 
these tacks are made in different shapes and they can be secured 
in brass, black metal or leather cpvered. 



72 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 



Before any object can be constructed in material there must 
be an idea or plan. First conies the mental picture and after that 
the picture reproduced on paper. This reproduction on paper 
can assume many forms. If it is a picture of the object as it 
will appear when made, it is called a perspective drawing, Fig. 1. 
It may be a free hand orthographic sketch sh(jwing the dimen- 
sions, such as Fig. 2; it may be a more carefully made ortho- 
graphic drawing on cross section paper, Fig. 3, or an ortho- 
graphic drawing mechanically made, Fig. 4, or an isometric 
drawing with dimensions as in Fig. 5. 

The first type, perspective, is of little use to the workman 
since from it he only gets the picture of the thing to be con- 
structed, but the other forms of drawing give all the shapes and 
sizes of all the pieces entering into the construction. There is 
hardly an occupation which is not touched by the working 
drawing. Plans for houses, bridges, parks, railways, etc., must 
be made before construction can begin. Designs for furniture, 
cabinet work, automobiles, boats, railway coaches, lighting fix- 
tures, plumbing, electric wiring, etc., are necessary before they 
can be made or assembled. In fact drawing is a language under- 
stood by all people, it is easily interpreted and easily used by 
any one who can devote a little time and study to it. 

The first step in making a working drawing of an object is 
the rough sketch. Its aim is to quickly put on paper the idea 
or mental picture one has of the object. Since, when working 
in material, only one surface can be worked upon at a time, the 
easiest kind of a drawing to read is the orthographic drawing. 
Fig. 6 shows a rough sketch of a stool. If one has had enough 
experience in constructing furniture to establish good propor- 
tion and correct sizes for the various parts, this rough sketch is 
all that is necessary. Figures added to the drawing suggesting 
the size of each part permanently retain the dimensions decided 
upon. If, however, one is not sure that the mental picture is of 
good proportion, rather than spoil the material in experimenting 
as well as wasting time, a more complete drawing, such as Fig. 7, 
can be made with a straight edge on cross section paper. In 
case the object is too large to be drawn full size on the paper it 
is drawn smaller than the object itself but in exactly the same 
proportion. If the drawing is half size and the length of the 
top board is fourteen inches, the drawing of the top board is 
made only seven inches ; in other words, each inch on the draw- 
ing represents two inches in the finished object. This is called 
drawing to scale and in this example it is written — Scale 1"=2". 



THE LAYOUT 



73 




c =1 



Fig.2 




74 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 


















Rg.9 





- 










1 


1 








1 













It is possible in this way to work out the size and proportion of 
every detail no matter how complicated, how large or how small. 

To make a mechanical drawing of an object, first the rough 
sketch is made, such as Fig. 8, with the approximate size of 
each piece indicated. Next the mechanical layout is made, Fig. 9. 
Here the exact proportions are worked out. If the original sug- 
gestions for dimensions are found to be wrong they are changed 
in this layout. The lines of the layout are lightly drawn in 
pencil so that in case the proportion is wrong, they can be easily 
erased, or if they are very lightly drawn they may be left on 
the paper. These light lines are called construction lines. Once 
this skeleton of light lines is made and the correct proportion 
established, the lines representing the visible edges of the object 
are made heavier. Fig. 10. Next the lines representing edges 
which are known to be there but which are hidden by some part 
of the object, are also made heavier. To show the difference 
between the visible edge and the hidden edge, the hidden edge is 
made up of a series of dashes with spaces between equal to 
about one-third the length of the dash. The length of these 
dashes and the spaces between them is not always the same, 
but their proportionate length is always the same. In large 
drawings the dashes are quite long while in small drawings or 
parts of drawings they are very short. The width of the line 
representing the hidden edge is always the same and it should 
be of the same width as the visible edge line. 

The next step in making the drawing is placing the dimen- 
sion lines and dimensions. The dimensions should, if possible, 
be placed half way between views. This will save placing dupli- 
cated dimensions on the drawing. Dimension lines and figures 
make a drawing look complicated, therefore they should 
be added only when necessary. They should always be placed 
below or to the right of the drawing except when placed 
between views or in a case where a part is too far removed to 
be readable if the dimensions were placed below. Since dimen- 



DRAWING INSTRUMENTS 



75 



! ® 

ie 



'1 fig. 10 



Mi i i i I 



fig.U 



Construction line 



Line rejbrtsent/nq o visible N^e 
Line representing a hidden edge 



Dimension line 
faulty arrow heads 



sion lines and figures make a drawing look complicated it is 
essential that they be subordinate to the drawing. Therefore 
dimension lines should be only slightly heavier than construc- 
tion lines, the arrow heads on the ends of the lines showing 
from where the measurements are taken should be small, pointed 
and not too black, and the figures, while distinct, should be of 
medium size. In case the dimensions are indicated with frac- 
tions, the lines separating the numerators and denominators 
should be aligned with the dimensions lines. Fig. 11 shows the 
standard lines and their uses. 

In case the drawing is to be a permanent record, pencil 
lines are not good as they will smudge with usage. If the 
drawing is not to be handled too much it may be made perma- 
nent enough by inking in the parts to be retained and leaving 
the construction lines in pencil. When a drawing is to receive 
severe usage a tracing, an ink drawing on transparent paper or 
cloth, is made from the original drawing and from this tracing 
blue prints are made. This also makes possible a quick way of 
producing a number of copies of the drawing". The blue print is 
different from the original drawing or tracing in that the parts 
which were black on the original are white on the blue print 
and the background is blue instead of white. 

The instruments used in making mechanical drawings. Fig. 
12, are the drawing board, the tee square, 45-degree angle, 30 
and 60-degree angle, scale, compass, curve and inking pen. A 
hard pencil is usually used in laying out the drawing and a soft 
pencil for strengthening the lines. It is very necessary that the 
pencils be kept pointed and sharp at all times. Figs. ,13 and 14 
show the method of sharpening and correctly pointing the 
pencil. The pencil should always be pointed on the end farthest 
away from the lettering or grade mark. Thumb tacks are used 
to hold the paper in place when drawing upon it. As the name 
indicates, they are tacks designed to be pushed in with the 
thumb, never pounded. 



76 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 





Fig. IE 


bO-60' Angle . ^^^ 


r— -_________^^5 Ang/e ^^^^^ 


Tee 5quare ^^^^^<^^' 


^ ~—p^'^^~^.__^^^ Thumb Tack 


5ca/e — ~- 


^^^^^^ 



To draw a free hand pencil line the pencil should be held 
loosely in the hand as in Fig. 15. It should be noted that the 
pencil lays back in a position similar to that used in writing. 
In drawing mechanical lines, lines guided by a straight edge, the 
pencil should be held more nearly erect as in Fig. 16, with the 
balls of the first and second fingers and the thumb holding the 
pencil near the point. The weight of the hand is applied to the 
third and fourth fingers as the hand is drawn along. This makes 
possible a control of the pressure on the pencil point and regu- 
lates the strength of the line being drawn. The position of the 
left hand in holding the straight edge securely while the line 
is being drawn and the manner of getting the point of the pen- 
cil against the lower part of the straight edge, should also be 
noted. 

Horizontal lines, lines running from left to right on the 
paper, are drawn along the upper edge of the tee square. It is 
absolutely necessary that the head of the tee square should 
always be held firmly against the left edge of the drawing board. 
Unless this is done lines drawn along its edge will not be 
parallel. To draw vertical or oblique lines, the triangle neces- 
sary to give the straight edge or proper angle, is placed against 
the upper edge of the tee square and both are held in position 




STRAIGHT LINES 



77 




as in Fig. 17, while the line is drawn along the edge, Fig. 18. 
Unless the head of the tee square is held firmly against the 
end of the drawing board, the lines drawn along the angle will 
not be in the direction desired. (It is very essential that the 
paper be fastened to the board with the thumb tacks so that 
its edge is parallel to the blade of the tee square.) If lines other 
than 45, 30 or 60 degrees are desired, combinations of two 
angles over the tee square may be made, Figs. 19 and 20. It 
is extremely difficult to hold the angles and tee square in these 
combinations. 

. To make sure that a line is continuous, or that it will pass 
through a given dot, the pencil should be placed on the dot or 
line, the tee square or angle pushed up against it and the line 
drawn. Figs. 21 and 22 show the two stages in drawing such 
lines. Mechanical lines are always drawn from left to right. 

Circular lines are made with a compass. There are two 
kinds of compasses but each performs the same kind of work. 
The less expensive kind, A-Fig. 23, is made of steel and nickle 
plated. It has a stationary steel centering point and an ordi- 
nary pencil or pen for the drawing point. A better grade of 
compass, B-Fig. 23, is made of German silver. It is much more 
durable and is susceptible to finer adjustments, consequently 




7^ 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 





Fig. 19 


1 1 \ 


» \ 


*■ '^^^^ 






better results in drawing can be obtained with it. It has an 
adjustable centering point, the joint at the junction of the two 
legs is adjustable and each leg is jointed. The pencilling and 
inking points are interchangeable, being detached below the 
knee joint on the drawing leg of the compass. The lead in the 
pencilling point is contained in a metal holder while, the inking 
point has two nibs with an ink chamber between instead of one 
nib with an ink pocket underneath as in the ordinary pen. The 
points of the compass are set over the scale as in Fig. 24, care 
being taken that the distance betwen the centering point and 
the drawing point is exactly one-half the length of the diameter 
of the circle to be drawn, in other words, the distance between 
these points is the radius. Care must be taken not to mutilate 
the markings on the scale in setting the compass. 

To draw a line with the compass the centering point is 
placed on the paper where the center of the circle is to 
be, and the knob of the compass held between the second finger 
and thumb as in Fig. 25. The knob is then twirled or rolled 
between that finger and the thumb until it comes between the 




CURVED LINES 



79 




first finger and thumb, Fig. 26. The result will be a complete 
circle, made by the drawing point. 

Irregular shapes are drawn along the edge of a curve as 
shown in Fig. 27. That part of the curve is selected which gives 
the shape which will pass through two or mor.„ points on the 
drawing and the lines drawn around it as along the straight 
edge of the angles or tee square. In case no one part of the 
curve gives the desired shape, the curve may be shifted and 
difTerent parts of it used. Fig. 28 shows how the curve is 
shifted three times to produce the desired line. 

The ruling pen, Fig. 30, is handled in a similar way to the 
pencil. The pen should be held as near perpendicular as pos- 
sible. A-Fig. 32 shows the correct side position of the pen in 
relation to the straight edge. B-Fig. 32 shows an incorrect posi- 
tion which would produce a blotted line, and C-Fig. 32 an 
incorrect position which would produce a ragged line. The set 
screw should be held on the side away from the straight edge. 
Loosening the set screw allows the nibs to separate ; tightening 
it closes up the space between the nibs. The wider the space 




80 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 




between the nibs, the broader will be the line produced. The 
nibs should never be brought together tightly because their 
points may be damaged. If, when inking a drawing, the ink on 
the line has a tendency to slide over some spots and settle in 
pools in others, the paper should be dusted lightly with powdered 
chalk or talcum powder. Lines are always drawn from left to 
right. The pen is filled with water proof ink to about one-third 
its capacity by dipping the quill, which is in the cork of the 
bottle, into the ink and then inserting it between the blades of 
the pen at the ink chamber. Fig. 31. The inking point of the 
compass is filled in the same way. 

It is also necessary to hold the inking point of the compass 
perpendicular when drawing with it. For this reason a two 
nibbed inking point can be used only in a compass having jointed 
legs as at Fig. 33. Inking pens should be kept thoroughly 
clean. This is best accomplished by always wiping the points 
with a linen cloth or a bit of chamois skin. Linen and chamois 
are best because they absorb the ink easily and leave little or 
no ink on the pen. Ink should never be allowed to dry on the 
pen. 

Good lettering is essential to the appearance of a mechanical 
drawing. Only continued practice will enable one to become 




LETTERING 



81 




proficient in lettering. The study of lettering should be ap- 
proached, first by becoming familiar with letter structure, to 
see how each letter is designed. The next step is to be able 
to produce the letter forms and work them into word and sen- 
tence combinations, and then to acquire speed in making the 
letters without lowering the standard acquired when making the 
letters slowly. Simple Roman letters are best suited for all 
forms of mechanical drawing. The letters are sometimes made 
slanting and sometimes vertical, depending on the taste of the 
individual or the practice in the drafting room where the let- 
tering is done. Figs 34, 35 and 36 show both styles, also the 
shape and proportion of both capitals and small letters, and. 
the number of strokes necessary to their completion, and 
the direction of each. One should make a number of copies 
of these standard letters in order to familiarize himself with 
their proper shape, size and spacing, before attempting to form 
them into words. The letters should at first be made about 
5/s" high, then, after the shapes and proportions are learned, 
the size reduced to ^4" high and finally to ys", Fig. 37. 
It is best to begin by drawing the capitals first and after skill 
is acquired in executing them, the small letters should be studied 
and drawn. The illustrations throughout this book show numer- 
ous examples of single stroke, free hand lettering. When the 
slanting style is used, it is very necessary that the slant of all 
upright lines be the same. 

It is much easier to learn the structure of the letters by 
studying them in groups according to structural details rather 
than in alphabetical sequence. While certain standard propor- 
tions can be set up, no unalterable rule can be established con- 
cerning these proportions. The appearance of each letter is 
influenced by the letter placed next to it. Unless this is taken 
into account and some letters widened and some narrowed as 



82 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 




LETTERING 



83 




84 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 




in Fig. 38 the line of lettering will appear uninteresting, no 
matter how well each letter is made. While certain combina- 
tions of letters can be sighted as examples of lettering, the 
proportions of which must be modified when u.^ed together, only 
experience and practice will tell just where and how much of a 
change should be made. Cross section paper makes the study 
of letter structure easier but it should be used only until one 
has become familiar with the structure, as the squares are apt 
to become a hindrance when it l:)ecomes necessary to modify the 
proportion of some of the letters. When drawing on plain paper, 
mechanically made parallel guide lines for the top and bottom 
of each line of lettering should be very lightly drawn, but 
all other lines should be made free hand. The complete 
line of lettering should first be blocked in, Fig. 39, to insure 
correct distribution and proportion and then the lines to be 
retained strengthened. Each line should be made with a single 
stroke. Touching up an error in a line usually makes it wider 
and consequently more noticeable. 

Blue prints from tracings are made in a blue print frame. 
It consists of a frame holding a pane of glass. The back of the 
frame is detachable and is held in place against the glass with 
springs. The tracing, whether it be on tracing paper or tracing 
cloth, is. placed in the frame with the front against the glass. 
The sensitized side of a piece of blue print paper is placed 
against the tracing and the back of the frame clamped in place. 
The frame is placed in the sun long enough to allow the light 
rays to chemically change the ingredients in the coating 
on the paper, the amount of time needed depending upon 
the strength of the light, the age of the paper used 
and the transparency of the tracing paper or cloth. In 
order to avoid waste of time and material in determining the 
amount of time needed to secure the proper tone on the blue 



BLUE PRINTS 85 



Pi g- 3? 



TTTTf l l^) .''Mi( )FF r^n = TR^;'rT^T)lT)n<Fi) IN A WMtiHH^WfN Cl III NbD 



LETTCRS SHOULD FIRST BE RIOCKFD I N AND THEN 5T R£N6THBtffl- 



// /.'} bompf/mps npcp.'.i^ai-^y to /-p.snace o ivo/~cy or-fwzr 



It is so fnetimes, nejc.p.s^^ry & fRspoeR o ward or twn" 



All upright lines; riiiist bR^hidwh in th(t\ samz d/hezt io/i ' 

' ' ' ' ' i" I'll'/. 



print paper, a simple test can be made as follows : after placing 
the tracing in the frame as instructed above, a strip of blue print 
paper abo.ut l^"x6'' is placed in position in the frame and the 
back of the frame clamped down. A piece of light proof card- 
board should be held over the front of the frame and the 
frame placed at a proper angle to receive the most direct 
rays of the sun. The cardboard should then be moved 
down, exposing about a half inch of the blue print paper. 
In fifteen seconds the cardboard should again be moved down 
another half inch. After retaining this position for fifteen sec- 
onds, the process should be repeated until the end of the strip 
of paper is reached. The result is that the last section will have 
been exposed only fifteen seconds while the first will have been 
exposed three minutes. This test strip should be thoroughly 
w^ashed in water and carefully studied to see which section pro- 
duces the most intense blue and clearest white. If, by counting 
down from the end last exposed, the number of sections to this 
clearest one, it is found that the best result was obtained in 
the third section, forty-five seconds will be needed ; if the sixth 
section appears best, a one and one-half minute exposure will be 
required to produce a like result. 

Blue prints will fade unless thoroughly washed, preferably 
in pure, moving water. Five minutes under such conditions is 
sufficient to develop the color and fix the chemicals. 

Most blue print paper made now is coated by machinery 
and results attained with it are much more satisfactory than can 
be secured with hand coated paper. The principal ingredients 
which go into the making of the coating solution are citrate of 
iron and ammonia, and red prussiate of potash. 

This solution must be applied to the paper in a room where 
the natural light is excluded. The coating solution is not sen- 
sitive to amber or ruby light. In large architects' offices and 



86 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 



Kig.40 




Cutting Bill 


A 
5 
C 
D 

I 


Top Ipci'xlZ'x 14. 
5hei; 1 • arXlO'x 12" 
Legs 4 •• ix 2ix2'6' 
Back Rail r •• i'x l^'x 12" 
Side Rails 2 ■• fx Ux 7" 



Mill Bill 



Piece ^"x 12^x6" 0' 



mechanical drafting rooms, blue printing is done with blue print- 
ing machines in which the electric arc light furnishes the light 
rays which change the color of the paper. 



READING BLUE PRINTS 

When a drawing is made of an object the three views, top, 
front and end are flattened out onto one plane. At iirst it is 
difficult to think of these various parts in this position, but it 
becomes easier when one grows accustomed to thinking wliat 
each part of the drawing means. So with reading a blue print. 
At first it seems impossible but by concentrated study the task 
can be accomplished. 

Fig. 40 shows a perspective drawing of a telephone table 
with each piece lettered and numbered, number 1 indicating the 
top view of the piece, number 2 the front view of the same 
piece and number 3 the end view of that piece. By locating all 
three views of each piece on the mechanical drawing. Fig. 41, 
according to these numbers, one will ])ecome familiar with their 
correct location. To further check this reading, the reference 
letters, with the name and size of the piece indicated are shown 
in the accompanying cutting bill. 



CUTTING BILL 



87 



Fig 41 



,r^^~T " 




There is very little difference between reading blue prints 
or mechanical drawings of cabinet work and for objects con- 
structed of metal or other materials. Each form of construction 
has its own symbols or special characteristics. For example, 
compare the drawings on the following pages for details typical 
of the different occupations each represents. 

Page 140 — Cabinet making. Page 89 — Architecture. 



Pa 



s:e 



-Machine design. 



Pae:e 264 — Electrical construction. 



The chief thing to learn in reading a blue print is what each 
kind of line represents, Fig. 11, and to be able to see from where 
and to where the measurements are made. Once this is learned, 
even complicated drawings are easily understood. 

CUTTING BILL 

In order to make out a cutting bill, one must be able to read 
a blue print accurately. It is best to start with the largest or 
most important piece first. Since the dimension for thickness 
is always given first, one should look for the dimension line 
which gives the thickness of this most important piece. In this 
drawing, selecting the top as that piece, the dimension sought 



88 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 



rig.4z 



A 


B 


C 


H 




D 


I 


W*ire 


-H 


E 




G 


F 



\NORM WHEEL 

AND WORM 



Fig 43 





will be found between the front and end views. The width is 
always given second. In this drawing figures giving the width 
are found to the right of the top view. The last dimension, 
length, in this case is found between the top and front views. 
These dimensions are entered on the cutting bill as shown in 
Fig. 40. By locating each piece of the telephone table in the 
perspective sketch, the mechanical drawing and the cutting bill, 
and checking the dimensions in each one, against the other, 
experience is gained in reading and interpreting the drawing. 

MILL BILL 

In order to get the material for the sizes suggested in the 
cutting bill it must be determined how many boards will be 
required and of what thickness, width and length they must be 
to cover the dimensions. This can be determined with a layout 
as shown in Fig. 42, but when a little experience has been 
acquired one becomes so familiar with the method of doing this 
that it is not necessary to reduce it to a drawing on paper. 

In making up a mill bill from a cutting bill it must be borne 
in mind that there is some waste, partly in saw kerfs and partly 
because of the shapes of the boards. The problem is to reduce 
the cutting bill to the fewest number of boards of standard 



MILL BILL 



89 



Ti^AA 




DINING ROOM 



,V- 





^^ I I HALL 

CLOSET IclOSEtI / 



A CL. 



PORCH ROOF 



FIRST ruOOR PLAN 



SECOND FLOOR PLAM 



length. Allowance must be made for saw kerfs and each piece 
must be enough larger than the actual size when finished, to 
give the workman plenty of material to get the piece out accord- 
ing to the dimensions in the cutting bill. In this telephone table 
the net amount of length required is 63". While perhaps 
a quarter of an inch would be enough to allow between boards, 
unless the sawing were absolutely square it would be impossible 
to get the parts out according to the cutting bill sizes. Since 
the nearest stock length to that required is 6', one would 
have to pay for the difference between 63" and 6', even if 
it were cut off, so it is best to leave it on the mill bill as 
allowance for sawing space. The drawing, Fig. 42, shows how 
all pieces of the telephone table can be gotten out of a single 
board. While three of the pieces of the table are to be of half 
inch stock, they are so small that it is cheaper to buy one thick- 
ness of lumber for all parts and plane these three pieces down 
to their proper thickness. 



90 COMMON JOINTS AND CONSTRUCTIONS 




Halflap 



Keyed ^ 

Mortice o^rtdTenon 



^^3^^*S'^^ Through 

Mortise 

Tenon 



COMMON JOINTS 

Butt, dado, rabbet, dovetail and gain joints are all similar 
in construction. The butt is the simplest and is adapted for 
crates, boxes and general construction. The dado is used in 
drawer and shelf construction. The rabbet is used where it is 
desirable to cover the end grain of the joint.'^. The dove tail 
is so constructed that its shape holds it together. The gain is 
used for practically the same purposes as the dado, but it is so 
constructed that the joint is hidden from the front. 

A mitre joint is a 45° angle butt joint used in picture frames 
and in joining moldings. 

A half lap joint is used where it is desired to have two 
pieces cross each other without increasing the thickness beyond 
that of one piece. 

A mortise and tenon is the best joint for most purposes 
from cabinet making to general construction. 

COMMON CONSTRUCTIONS 
Through nailed construction and toe nailed construction 
are the most common types used in various kinds of work. 
Dowel construction can be so made that the dowels do not show 
when the joint is assembled. Draw bolt construction is used 
in joints subjected to gfeat strain. The joints can be tightened 
up when they work loose, by twisting the bolts. 



COMMON JOINTS AND CONSTRUCTIONS 



91 




Th/jou^h 





Toe Nail 



Groove 




~^ ^ g Spline 
^ ^ ^ Shiplap DraivBott 

c=s==' C/apboatd 
barn Door DrawingBoard Panel 




Surface coverings are made with butt, tongue and groove, 
spline, ship lap and clapboard construction. Butt joints admit 
light and air while the others do not. All boards shrink and 
swell with changing weather conditions, but these joints will 
remain light and dust proof. The joint in shiplap and tongue 
and groove construction is often made less noticeable by the 
grooving of a bead parallel to the edge of the joint. 

Rabbet, chamfer, stop chamfer and bevel are forms of edge 
construction. In each, one arris is cut away. In the rabbet the 
two new surfaces formed, parallel the faces of the board. In 
the chamfer one new surface is made which is oblique to the 
other faces. The stop chamfer does not extend the full length 
of the board. A bevel differs from a chamfer in that its slant 
begins at one arris of the board instead of at a point on one face. 

In barn door construction several boards with edges butted 
are held together with a batten. If it is used for a door, a 
diagonal brace which slants down from the hinge side is usually 
added. In drawing board construction, the ends of one or more 
boards are tongued and set into a grove in the edge of another 
board. The grain running two ways keeps each from warping. 
Panel construction is used when it is necessary to have a cov- 
ering the size of which will not change with weather conditions. 
The frame will retain its shape because the grain runs tv^/o 
ways and the panel of thinner wood may shrink or expand in 
the grove. The panel must never be glued into the groove. 



92 



WOODWORKING 



CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATIONS 

In making any project there are certain fundamental opera- 
tions which must be undergone. Briefly they arrange them- 
selves as follows : 

Tire working drawing, 

stock in -pjjg suitability in regard to use. 

The suitability in regard to appearance. 

_Thc suitability in regard to working qualities. 

Measuring and laying out. 

Getting out stock. 



Selecting the 
regard to 



Cutting to size. 



g out. 
ing. 



Assembling with. 



Finishing 



(Roughin 
Smoothi 
Joints. 

Nails. 
Screws. 
Glue. 
Dowels. 

Preparing Surfaces | Scraping. 

( Sanding. 
Coloring Surfaces j Stain. 

i Paint. 
^ Filling Surfaces S Paste Filler. 

I Liquid Filler. 

r,. , o , r Shellac. 

Final Surfaces .j Wax. 

[ Varnish. 

A knowledge of these fundamental operations will aid one 
m making any project. They should therefore be carefully 
studied and followed in making any of the projects set forth in 
the following pages. 

Selecting Stock. In selecting the kind of wood for a pro- 
ject, the strength, hardness, weight, grain, etc., should be con- 
sidered or much time may be spent on building the project only 
to find that the wood is not strong enough to stand the strain, or 
that it would appear more beautiful if wood with a more pro- 
nounced grain had been used. The chart on page 40 will be 
of great help in determining the kind of wood to select for a 
project. 

The kind of wood having been determined, a board of suf- 
ficient size to allow all pieces to be gotten out of it economically 



CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATIONS 93 

should be selected. In order to do this, one must thoroughly 
understand how to read a mechanical drawing or blue print so 
that he knows the exact size of every piece. (See section on 
"Reading Blue Prints" and "Cutting Bills," on page 86.) 

Measuring and Laying Out. Either a rule, yard stick or 
framing square may be used in measuring and laying out stock. 
Allowance must always be made for waste in sawing. When 
measuring in the direction of the grain, the measuring tool must 
be held parallel to the long edges and never diagonally even to 
the slightest degree, or inaccurate measurements will result. 
Measurements and lines set off across the grain must be made 
along the edge of the blade of the try square or framing square, 
the other blade or head of which is held against the truest edge 
of the board. 

Getting Out Stock. The wood must be held securely in a 
vise or across or between saw horses while the stock is being 
sawed. Care must be taken while sawing not to split the board. 
As the end of a cut is neared, the hand holding the board should 
take hold of that part being sawed off and the sawing should 
proceed more slowly and with shorter strokes. Wood not used 
should be returned to its proper place in the rack. 

Cutting Wood to Size. For some outside work the wood 
may be sawed to size and left rough although it usually pays to 
take the additional time necessary to plane the surfaces, from 
the points both of appearance and durability. Moisture will seep 
into the grain of a rough board much more quickly than into 
that of a smooth board. 

If it is desired to use up scraps of lumber in any given 
project, the pieces selected should be reduced to near the finished 
size as described in "Getting Out Stock." Time thus spent 
often saves much unnecessary planing. 

A rectangular board has one surface and six faces. Two of 
these are called broad faces, two edges (narrow faceg running 
with the grain), and two ends (narrow faces running across 
the grain). The order usually followed in squaring up a board 
to any given dimension is : 

1st. Planing one board face smooth and true; testing it 
lengthwise and crosswise. Fig. 1, with the blade of the try 
square or framing square to be sure that it is perfectly flat ; 
marking this face with a light pencil mark to indicate that it is 
finished. This is called the working face, Fig. 2. 

2nd. Planing one edge smooth and square to the working 
face, testing it lengthwise and crosswise from the working fac^s 
with the try square. Fig. 3, then marking it. This face is called 
a working edge, Fig. 4. 



94 



WOODWORKING 




3rd. Squaring up one end to the woiking face and work- 
ing edge. In case the end is very much out of true a knife 
line should be scored around the board, first across the working 
face, then across the working edge, then across the unfinished 
broad face and then across the unfinished edge. If the line is 
scored along the marking edge of the try square and the head 
of the square is held tightly against a working face or edge 
while the line is being scored, Fig. 5, the lines will meet on each 
arris of the board. If there is much wood to be removed out- 
side the scored line, it may be sawed off close to the line and 
then planed to the center of the line. 

In planing end grain it is necessary to cut across the wood 
fibers. Since they separate easily the wood will splinter or split 
at the far edge if the plane is pushed all the way across the 
board. Fig. 6. To avoid this splintering the plane should be 
pushed from each edge toward the center. The trueness and 
squareness of the end can be verified with the try square, Fig. 
7, but if the scored line has been carefully divided by the 
cutting iron of the plane, the end is, of necessity, square. This 
end is called a working end, Fig. 8. 

4th. Measuring the required length from the working end 
along the arris between the working face and working edge and 
scoring a line through this point around the board as in the 
third step. Sawing and planing to this line will give the length. 
Fig. 9. 





CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATIONS 



95 



Fig. 5 




Wor/img edge 




Fig, 6 




5th. With the marking gauge set to the desired width (see 
section on "Laying Out Tools"), gauging a line from the work- 
ing edge on both broad faces of the board, then planing to the 
center of the gauge line. If there is too much wood to plane 
away, the greater part may be cut away close to the gauge line 
with the rip saw. Planing to this line reduces the board to 
width, Fig. 10. 

6th. With the marking gauge set for the correct thickness, 
gauging a line from the working face on both edges and across 
both ends. Planing to this line smoothes the last broad face 
and gives the final dimension of the board, thickness, Fig. 11. 

When boards are irregular in shape, either with curved 
surfaces or straight edges oblique to the line of the grain, the 
waste wood can be removed with a saw, Fig. 16, page 8, or 
it may be chiselled as shown in Fig. 35, page 14. Large curved 
edges should be smoothed with the spokeshave, small curved 
edges with the chisel or gouge, but if the opening is too small 
for these tools, the wood rasp may be used. Never use the 
wood rasp if it is possible to use the plane or spokeshave. 

After all parts are cut to size, the joints are laid out and 
cut as illustrated in the section on "Joints," page 90. 

Assembling. The first thing to do in assembling is to see 
that all pieces of the project are of the proper size and shape. 




Fig- 7 



Worhingface 
Working edge 





96 



WOODWORKING 




The kinds of fasteners to be used should be determined by a 
study of the strength required, appearance, kind of wood, etc. 
Before any parts are permanently fastened together, the entire 
project as near as possible should be set up to see that every- 
thing goes together properly. Joints should be fitted together 
squarely and held in that position until the nails and screws 
are driven in or until the glue "sets." 

In gluing up stools, tables, chairs, cabinets, etc., the sides 
must be held square to the front and back. The framing square 
and try square should be used freely in testing this squareness. 
The legs of all such projects must stand flat on the floor. 

Finishing. The kind of finish which should be given a pro- 
ject depends upon a number of things. Generally speaking, all 
projects used out of doors should be painted, while for indoor 
work, if the wood is carefully smoothed and the grain exposed 
produces an interesting pattern, staining and varnishing is more 
satisfactory. See section on "Wood Finishes." If there is no 
objection to covering the grain, paint can be used on indoor 
projects. If lumber is knotty or otherwise of poor quality it 
should be painted. Surfaces which are fuzzy or rough do not 
finish well and they should first be smoothed. Some woods, 
even after planing, appear slightly rough and need to be scraped 
or sandpapered especially if the surfaces are soiled. All traces 
of grease must be removed from the parts to be finished or the 
paint or stain will not "anchor." 

Paint is of such consistency that it will float into and fill 
up the pores of wood, making it moisture proof, but if the article 
is stained, these pores are still exposed and they should be 
filled until the surface is smooth. Then the final finish of shellac, 
wax or varnish applied. See paragraph on filler in section on 
"Wood Finishes." 

A special room should be provided for finishing projects 
because dust particles will settle on the varnish or paint when 
the shop room is swept and mar the finish. In a desire to get 
a project completed, the worker often fails to put enough time 
and care in properly smoothing and finishing the article, and 
thus spoils the appearance of an otherwise excellent piece of 
workmanship. 



97 

WOODWORKING PROJECTS 

Since any project constructed of wood involves practically 
the same fundamental operations, details concerning these have 
been eliminated in the projects set forth in the following pages. 
Only enough descriptive matter has been given to make the 
drawings clear and the projects understood. In some cases 
definite dimensions have been eliminated, it being left to the in- 
dividual to work these out to fit his special need. In all cases 
the dimensions given should be considered as flexible and they 
can be modified or changed to suit any special emergency. 

While the projects are grouped under such headings as 
Sawing and Nailing, Planing, etc., by modifying the design 
somewhat, a project suggested under one heading can be 
brought under another classification. While the following pages 
give only a limited number of definite projects, others are sug- 
gested throughout the book under various general headings. 
They can be located by name in the index. 

Wliile the drawings are complete enough for one to work 
directly from the book, the construction of a working drawing, 
including any individual modifications, will be found very help- 
ful. We learn to read blue prints and working drawings best 
by reproducing them or making original drawings of our own. 
See the section on Mechanical Drawing for directions for mak- 
ing and interpreting working drawings. 

After the working drawing has been completed, a stock 
bill should be made out and the cost of the materials computed. 
The following form shows a simple stock bill for small shop 
projects : 



Name 








Proiect 
Date 




Pieces 


Thickness 


Width 


Length 


Board Feet 


Kind of 
Lumber 


Price per 
Foot 


Cost 


1 




1 


j 




1 




1 


: 


II 




1 


1 




1 




! 


1 








1 


1 




Total 





If this bill is carefully made out from the working draw- 
ing the pupil is less apt to make mistakes in cutting out his 
materials. 



98 



WOODWORKING 




Flower Box Fig. I 



~3o/t 





Plant Trellis Fig. Z 



99 

SAWING AND NAILING PROJECTS 

The projects in this group are either made of rough material 
or of lumber already surfaced for use. They involve the three 
processes of measuring, sawing and nailing. Since all of them 
are planned for outdoor use, they should be painted in order to 
preserve the wood. 

WINDOW FLOWER BOX 

Flower boxes are made in many different shapes and sizes. 
The box shown in Fig. 1 is designed to rest on brackets below 
a window on the outside of a house. The bottom board is 40" 
long and 7Y\" wide. The sides should first be squared up 
40" X 8". A triangular block, of the dimensions shown in the 
drawing, is sawed oifif the top corner of each side. The sides are 
nailed to the bottom and the ends. A few holes should be bored 
in the bottom to allow the surplus water to drain out. 

For outdoor use, this box should be painted. See page 54 
for directions for painting. The box may be used indoors, in 
which case it may be either painted or stained. A flat pan 
should be used under the box if it is used mdoors to catch any 
surplus water seeping through the holes in the bottom. 

In this project as in the succeeding ones, the design is only 
suggestive and should be modified to embody original designs 
by the pupil. 

PLANT TRELLIS 

This plant trellis is made by laying out a 2 x 4 into 6 equal 
strips and ripping down each division mark to the point B. 
A bolt should be placed through the base just below the point 
B to prevent the base from splitting when the strips are bent 
out. Three or more cross strips should be nailed to these strips, 
care being taken to properly space the strips. This trellis 
should be made with a base long enough to allow it to be firmly 
set in the ground. The height may be varied to meet the size 
of the plant for which it is made. Instead of a 2 x 4, a 1" board 
may be used in the same way. A board 6" or 8" wide will give 
a much wider trellis and one of these widths should be used 
when a large plant is to be trellised. 



Many excellent projects in rough construction involving sawing and 
nailing may also be found in the section on School-Home Projects. 



100 



WOODWORKING 



JI 



ILZ 



-4Z 



-'M II 




Wash Tub Bench Fig. 3 




Tomato Trelli5 Fig. 4 



SAWING AND NAILING PROJECTS 101 

WASH TUB BENCH 

A wash tub bench with a slatted top is much superior to 
one with a solid top because the water which is splashed over 
the side of the tub drains off more rapidly. The top of the 
bench shown in Fig. 3 is composed of four pieces J^"x 3" x 42", 
spaced 2" apart. These slats are nailed to two cleats which are 
sunk level with the top of the side rail as shown in the iljustra- 
tion. The ends are nailed to these two cleats and also to the 
two side rails to give solidity to the bench. A cross brace should 
be placed in the middle and the side strips and top slats nailed 
to it. 

The height of the bench should be adjusted to meet the 
requirements of the person for whom it is made. There are a 
variety of designs for the ends, two of which are shown in the 
drawing. The bench should be painted to preserve it and keep 
the boards from warping under the alternate wetting and drying 
processes through which the unpainted boards must pass. 

TOMATO TRELLIS 

Many schemes have been used to keep tomatoes off the 
ground when they are ripening. Some gardeners drive stakes 
by the side of the plants and tie the plants securely to these 
stakes. Others put straw under the plants and thus keep the 
tomatoes oft' the ground. The trellis shown in Fig. 4 is made 
by nailing strips of box lumber or other waste boards to end 
cleats as shown in the illustration. These end cleats should 
be fastened together with a screw or nail at the joint. A wire 
is used across both ends to hold the sides at the proper angle 
and prevent the trellis from spreading too far. At the end of 
the season, by loosening the wires the trellis may be flattened 
out and stored away for the next season. 

The tomato plant is trained through the opening in the 
middle of the trellis and then allowed to spread out on the 
frame. This allows the tomato plant to assume a natural posi- 
tion and still be off the ground. This trellis may be made for 
a single plant or may be made long enough to support several 
plants. 

Another type of tomato trellis is made in the form of a 
ladder supported horizontally by two stakes at each end. Bolts 
or heavy spikes are inserted in holes in these end stakes so 
that the ladder is adjustable and may be raised as the plants 
increase in height. This trellis requires less lumber than the 
one described above. 



102 



WOODWORKING 



BiPwD Houses Fig. 5 



Wren 




Woodpecker 




W/refor 
fastening 
house to 
post 



MARTIN 




SAWING AND NAILING PROJECTS 



103 



5. BIRD HOUSES 
The birds are our crop protectors. They eat a very large 
number of insects each day and thus prevent a too rapid in- 
crease of the enemies of our crops. We should show our appre- 
ciation to our feathered friends by building houses for them. 

Three simple designs of bird houses are shown in Fig. 5. 
The red-headed woodpecker's house is made out of a hollow liml). 
covered by a slab or board. The martin's house is divided by 
means of partitions into 10 compartments. This house should 
be constructed so that the top or ends may be easily removed 
in order to clean out the old nests each Spring. This may be 
done by fastening them with screws. 

The proper sizes of the houses and the openings into them 
suitable for several of our common birds are given in the fol- 
lowing table : 

DIMENSIONS OF BIRD HOUSES 



BIRD 


Inside 

Width 

in Inches 


Inside 

Length 

in Inches 


Inside 

Height 

in Inches 


Height of 
Entrance 
in Inches 


Diameter of 
Entrance 
in Inches 


1. Wren 


4 

r 

4 
•J 
6 
6 
6 
7 
G 
10 


4 

4 

5 
8 
G 
G 

G 
18 


7 

8 

9 

(> 

8 

6 

6 

18 

15 

18 


6 

8 

5 

Open Side 

Open Side 

1 

16 

12 

4 


1 


2. Bluebird 


11/^ 

1% 

1% 
Open Side 
Open Side 

2% 

2 
6 


3. Chicadee 


4. Tree Swallow 

5. Robin 


6. Barn Swallow 

7. Martin 


8. Flicker 

9. Red-headed Woodpecker 
10. Barn Owl 







The placing of the entrance, so I'hat it will leave room for 
the nest and not be too high for the bird to reach when leaving, 
is very important. Most bird houses should be nailed or wired 
firmly to a tree, the side of a building or upon the top of a 
pole. Some houses, such as the wren's, may be swung to the 
limb of a tree by a wire. It has also been found that a perch is 
not necessary and that sparrows do not bother houses so much 
on which there are no perches. 

Bird houses may be put up as soon as they are made. As a 
matter of fact, birds prefer houses which have been exposed to 
the weather for some time to those which are new or which have 
been newly painted. 



For additional information on bird houses see Farmer's Bulletin, No. 
COS. Ti S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



104 



WOODWORKING 




Dog House Fig. 6 



T 



^=M- 



JL 



32' 



■J^U 



iV'/re /iesh 



l~l_ T 




Ash 5IFTERS Fig./ 



SAWING AND NAILING PROJECTS 105 

DOG HOUSE 

Every boy who owns a dog is interested in building a suit- 
able house or kennel for him. The size of the house will vary 
according to the size of the dog, consequently Fig. 6 merely 
shows a good design for a dog house, but does not prescribe 
specific dimensions. 

This 'house should be provided with a window in the back 
covered with a screen. In the summer both the door and the 
window may be left open to provide suitable ventilation. In 
the winter, the house may be put inside another building and 
only the window left open for ventilation. 

The dog house wiH have a much neater appearance and be 
more durable if it is painted or stained. It should be painted 
for outdoor use and either stained or painted if used indoors. 

ASH SIFTERS 

Many of the householders in the northern states are sift- 
ing the ashes obtained from anthracite coal. This results not 
only in thousands of dollars being saved, but also helps con- 
serve our inadequate and rapidly dwindling supply of hard 
coal. 

Fig. 7 gives the details of a home-made ash sifter. This 
sifter may be constructed of rough lumber, but it should be 
accurately made. The box should be made about 24" square 
and from 5" to 6" deep. The screen in the bottom is made of 
ys'' hardware mesh. This screen is fastened in place by nailing 
^^''x^" strips along the edges of the mesh on the bottom 
of the box. The handles of the sifter should be slightly 
rounded with a spokeshave or a draw knife. 

A frame should be made on which the shaker may roll in 
sifting the ashes. This frame should be about 30" high, 28" 
wide and 32" long. It may be constructed out of 2" x 4" or 
2"x2" material for the legs and ^"x6" boards for the sides. 
These sides should be securely nailed or screwed to the legs 
so that the frame will be solid. The frame is easily moved to a 
new location when the ash pile becomes too high. A broom 
stick or any round handle about 3' long may be used as a 
roller. 

The lower drawing shows the same box mounted on wheels. 
This is a very convenient form of sifter to use in the country 
where the ashes are distributed evenly along a road or drive- 
way to improve the roadbed. 



106 



WOODWORKING 





Cutting Boards Fig. 8 





T 




h- 5 


1 





Sandpaper Block 

flG.9 



Jar Cover Fig. 10 



y-Open 






M:j \;u 1^ 



Pencil Sharpener 
Tig II 



9f 






Top 



3 7 



^/7<y 



Nail Box Fig. 12 



107 

PLANING PROJECTS 

Every beginner in woodworking needs practice in planing. 
At the same time he should be making something that is useful 
while he is getting this practice. A variety of useful planing 
projects are described below. 

CUTTING BOARDS 

A cutting board serves a variety of uses and is always a 
valuable addition to the kitchen equipment. The pupil should 
plan the dimensions to suit his needs. The dimensions usually 
vary from i/<"x7"xlO" to 78"xlO"xl4". The board should 
first be carefully planed to dimensions (see page 93). Fig. 8 
shows a few suggestions for design after the board has been 
squared up. 

SANDPAPER BLOCK 
The dimensions of the sandpaper block should be de- 
termined by the sizes into which the worker wishes to tear his 
sandpaper. They may be made either rectangular (Fig. 9), or 
with beveled sides. Sandpaper blocks can be made from lum- 
ber from the scrap box and thus convert Avaste material into 
something useful. 

JAR COVER 
The jar cover (Fig. 10) is a project similar to the cutting 
board. The vessel to be covered should be measured to de- 
termine the dimensions for the cover. 

PENCIL SHARPENER 
The two pieces for a pencil sharpener may be made from 
a lath or a piece of other thin material. No. sandpaper, the 
size of each strip of wood, should be glued to the two inner 
faces and the strips hinged together with small pieces of leather 
fastened on with tacks. These leather hinges may be secured 
from the tops of an old pair of shoes. A closing pencil sharpener, 
as shown in Fig. 11, keeps the pencil dust from coming in 
contact with other articles in the desk. 

NAIL BOX 
The nail box shown in Fig. 12 is merely a collection of 6 
rectangular blocks, nailed together. No difficulty will be en- 
countered if the parts are square and laid out exactly to 
dimensions. 



108 



WOODWORKING 



CDI 



j~^~n i — Lh) 2 



^ ^ 





Book Racks Fig. 13 




^ 



=^ 



Pen Trays Fig. 14 



EZH r- -------^ 



r — I ■" 





(^ 






■N 








r^ 






> 










/^ 








r 






1 




Letter Holders Fig. 15 



109 

SIMPLE JOINT AND CONTOUR PROJECTS 

No attempt is made in this section to describe in detail 
how each joint is made in each individual article. The methods 
of laying out and constructing the various kinds of joints are 
described on pages 90 to 91. In addition to the saw and the 
plane, these projects involve the use of the chisel and spoke- 
shave. These tools are described in detail on pages 12 and 13. 

BOOK RACKS 

No project in woodwork offers a better opportunity for 
variation in design than the book rack. Fig. 13 shows a number 
of suggestions for the ends of a book rack, on any of which may 
be added an appropriate design by carving or using water colors, 
provided the grain in the wood is not too pronounced. 

The ends may be fastened in a variety of ways. They may 
be screwed to the base with a simple butt or gained joint. This 
construction may be used with the ends placed on top of the 
base or at the ends of the base. If the book rack is to be 
shipped or stored away, it will be more convenient to hinge the 
ends so they will fold down on the base. The hinges should 
be sunk in the bottom of the ends in a blind mortise. 

PEN TRAY 

Wood, which is easily gouged such as mahogany or black 
walnut, should be used for the pen tray, shown in Fig. 14. A 
gouge is- used to hollow out the trough of the tray. A goose- 
necked scraper or a cabinet scraper with one corner rounded 
should be used to smooth the trough after it has been smoothed as 
much as possible with the gouge. It should be finally finished 
with sandpaper. Alternate strips of a light and a dark wood 
about Yi" thick glued together makes a beautiful tray. The 
tray may be finished with square or chamfered edges as shown 
in the illustration. 

LETTER HOLDER 

Fig. 15 shows two designs for simple letter holders with 
two suggested designs for varying the shapes of the sides for 
each. The sides should be fastened to the base with blued 
screws and the bottom with common screws, countersunk so 
that they will not scratch the library table on which the holder 
is placed. 



no 



WOODWORKING 



B 




a — k2: 



10 

C 



T 

_L 



^E>utt JO, 



</nt 



24 



/^' 



dado Joint 




♦ f 



Book Shelved 
Fig. 16 



SIMPLE JOINT AND CONTOUR PROJECTS 111 

BOOK SHELVES 

A set of book or magazine shelves is a useful addition to 
the equipment of any library or study. Fig. 16 gives a variety 
of designs for the ends of such a set of book shelves. 

End A should first be squared up 10" wide and 33" long. 
From points 2" from each of the upper corners, slanting lines 
are drawn to the corners of the lower end. Saw these strips from 
the bottom of the end so that accidental splitting will not injure 
it. The handhold in the top may be made by boring two holes 
with an inch bit at each end of the opening and sawing out the 
remainder with a compass saw. The edges of this opening may 
be finished with a gouge and a round wood-file. 

End B is made in a similar manner. The hand-hold is 
more difficult to make. Most of the wood may be removed by 
boring several holes with a bit along the center of the opening. 
The chisel is used to finish the edges of this opening. 

End C shows not only a difl:'erent design but also shows a 
trough shelf which may be substituted for the two lower shelves 
of the rack as shown in the upper drawing. 

End D shows a strip design. The outer pieces are %"x2" 
and the "filler" may be made of either ^" or ^" material. 
The clover leaf design in the filler may be made by boring 3 
holes which intersect as shown in the illustration and sawing 
out the stem with a coping saw. Making this design on a 
piece of scrap wood should be practiced before attempting to 
work on the "filler." This design is a very good one for maga- 
zine shelves where it is desirable to have wider shelves than 
those needed for books. It also allows the shelves to be made 
higher without spoiling the proportions. 

The ends should be fastened to the shelves with 2^" No. 
10 blued screws. Short screws will not give sufficient strength. 
The "filler" in end D may be nailed on with brads or put on 
with small blued screws. Care should be taken to have the 
ends of the shelves square or this construction will not be 
strong. Small angle irons may be used under the shelves for 
extra braces if needed. 

Instead of a butt joint as shown in the illustration, the 
shelves may be fitted into the ends by means of dado or gained 
joints. These joints will increase the strength of the construc- 
tion. If these joints are made, the beginner should be extremely 
careful not to cut them wider than the thickness of the shelves. 



112 



WOODWORKING 




I _ iT^T ,6-- 



4-^ -M| 
Wau. Rack5 



ffl 




Register Rack 



J/C'e partly 
c/osed 




n 



Copper rivft 
and burr 



Ho/e5 for rope ' 



\ 



Zide cpen 




EiI3I 



ffl 



Detail -top view 




Floor Rack 

Clothes Racks Fig. 17 



SIMPLE JOINT AND CONTOUR PROJECTS 113 

CLOTHES RACKS 

Three different designs for clothes racks are shown in Fig. 
17. The upper drawing represents a wall rack to be hung over 
the kitchen range for drying dish towels. It consists of three 
or more arms swinging on a bolt fastened in a vertical position. 
Several designs for shaping the back of the wall rack are shown 
in the drawing. There is always a tendency for the arms of a 
towel rack to warp on account of the alternate wetting and 
drying. This construction enables one to easily remove any 
warped parts and substitute new ones. 

The register rack is designed to be placed over a floor 
register or in front of a wall register of a hot air furnace. If 
large dowels are not available for the cross bars, octagonal bars 
may be made by planing off the arrises of bars which are about 
1" square. If a lathe is available, the bars may be turned out 
on it. The bars should be glued in holes in the frame. Addi- 
tional strength will be secured if the ends of these bars are also 
nailed in the frame. The remainder of the frame should be 
put together with nails or screws. 

The floor rack will afford much more drying space than 
either of the others. The base is. made of two pieces of 2" x 2" 
material, joined together with a cross lap joint. See page 90 
for a description of this joint. The post is fastened to the base 
by a long screw, set in from the bottom of the cross lap joint. 
The post should also be supported with braces. One design 
for a brace is shown in the drawing. The arms consist of two 
horizontal bars fastened to a vertical bar with copper rivets. 
The horizontal bars are screwed to the post with brass screws 
and brass or copper washers. Ordinary screws and washers 
will rust and damage the clothing hung on the rack. The rack 
may be folded by raising the arms up toward the center post. 
If the screws and rivets are tight, the friction at the joints will 
be enough to hold 'the arms in place when the rack is folded. 

By boring sets of holes just below each set of horizontal 
bars and stretching ropes around the four arms, the hanging 
space of the rack will be greatly increased without interfering 
with the folding of the rack. 

The appearance of these racks will be much improved if 
they are finished with a water-proof paint or varnish. There 
will also be less danger of the bars getting water soaked and 
warping if this is done. 



114 



WOODWORKING 




h— 


(9 




-! 




c 






1 






r< 








c 








> 



T C 



Reversible 5leeve Board Fig. 18 



_j- 




/o"" 



nn 



^ Q o 




r 
± 



AZ 



il_ 



( ) 



5led Fig. 19 




g"^-^ 



60 



-^^^ 



Ironing Board Fig. 20 



SIMPLE JOINT AND CONTOUR PROJECTS 115 

SLEEVE BOARD 

A sleeve board enables one to press the sleeve of a gar- 
ment without leaving a crease. A reversible sleeve board is much 
more convenient than the common type of sleeve board because 
pressing can be done on both boards, the large board being 
used for pressing the sleeves of a man's coat and the small 
board being used for pressing the sleeves of women's suits and 
shirt waists. Both boards should be covered with some heavy 
padding. 

The curves at the ends of each board should be drawn with 
a compass or dividers. The brace between the boards may be 
designed in a variety of ways, a number of which are suggested 
in Fig. 18. If a 2" x 4" brace is not available, two 1" boards 
may be glued together to make a brace of this size. When 
pressing on the ends of the board, considerable strain is thrown 
on the brace. A lag screw or bolt, countersunk in each board 
will strengthen the brace and prevent it from splitting. 

SLED 

There is a much greater satisfaction in the possession of a 
hand made sled of one's own construction than in one purchased 
at a store. The sled shown in Fig. 19 is braced with two cross 
pieces. Additional strength is secured by nailing the top to the 
runners. Small angle irons, attached to the top and the run- 
ners, will also help keep the runners from spreading or bending 
in. These irons should be sunk level with the surface of the 
runner so that they will not impede the progress of the sled 
through the snow. This sled will be much improved if iron 
runners are screwed to the bottom of the wooden runners. 
These may be easily made if a forge is a\ailable. 

IRONING BOARD 

Fig. 20 shows an ironing board of convenient size which 
may be supported on the backs of two chairs or between a table 
and a chair. The strips across the ends are put on with a glued 
tongue and grooved joint. If a plane for making this joint is 
not available, these strips may be screwed or nailed to the 
ends, the screws or nails being placed close together. A board 
of this type is particularly desirable in pressing dresses because 
the dresses can be slipped around the whole board. If the board 
tends to warp one way due to the heat caused from the ironing, 
the padding should be changed and the other side used. 



116 



WOODWORKING 



Klil3 



Medicine Cabinet Fig. 21 




^. y V — — ^ 



i 



Top view . 
/id removed 



"■ 






) a 








ir-^ 



H r- 



End view 



.L 



Collar OR Handkerchief Box Yig.ZZ 



SIMPLE JOINT AND CONTOUR PROJECTS 117 

MEDICINE CABINET 
Every home and every school building should be provided 
with a medicine cabinet in which are kept supplies needed for 
giving first aid to the injured. Fig. 21 shows an easily con- 
structed medicine cabinet. The bottom shelf is dadoed into the 
sides, and strip A is nailed over the front edge of this shelf to 
hide the joints. The top is fastened to the sides with a gain 
joint. See page 90 for a description of the dado and gain 
joints. The shelf may be gained into the sides or fastened with 
small strips tacked beneath it to the sides. The center strip 
in the front should be nailed to the top and bottom. The two 
doors should be hinged to the sides and provided with catches. 

This cabinet should be finished to match the finish of the 
room in which it is to be used. If it is used in a bath-room which 
is finished in white, it should be painted with a white enamel 
paint. The catches on the doors should be selected to match 
the finish of the cabinet. 



COLLAR AND HANDKERCHIEF BOX 

The box shown in Fig. 22 makes a convenient collar box. 
One side may be used for clean collars and the other for soiled 
ones. The middle piece may be eliminated and the dimensions 
made smaller if one wishes to use it for a glove box. 

The ends and partition are fastened to the sides with dado 
joints. If these joints are well made, glue will be sufiicient to 
hold this box together, but if desired, brads may be nailed 
through the sides into the ends to strengthen the joints. 

The bottom is nailed to the sides and ends with brads. 
The top may be hinged or it may be kept in place by nailing 
two strips about ^" square to the lower surface of the top so 
that they fit snugly against the ends and sides when the lid is in 
its proper position. 

The box will look much more artistic if the lower edges of 
the top and the upper edges of the bottom are chamfered. The 
top may also be decorated with a design. A number of designs 
are suggested in the lower part of the drawing. These designs 
should be outlined with heavy pencil marks and colored with 
water colors. A wood, not having a pronounced grain, such as 
poplar or basswood is best suited for this work because a pro- 
nounced grain in the wood will interfere with the lines of the 
design. A shellac finish should be given to the box when com- 
pleted. 



118 



WOODWORKING 



■"T-l 



I I I I 



ri-J 



cn > 






3 C 



Shoe: 5HINING Cabinet Fig. 23 





Plant Stand Fig.Z4 



SIMPLE JOINT AND CONTOUR PROJECTS 119 

SHOE SHINING CABINET 

The ends and partitions of the shoe shining cabinet, Fig. 23, 
are fitted into the sides with dado joints. The top is composed 
of two boards, each Z^/^" wide and 18" long. One of these 
boards is fastened to the frame and the other is hinged to it in 
the center. The partitions are not essential, but enable one to 
keep the polish, brush and polishing cloths separated. A rest 
for the shoe may be screwed to the lid and thus be out of sight 
when the box is closed. The design in the end may be varied in 
many ways. 

This shoe shining cabinet makes a seat when closed and 
should be finished in the same color as the rest of the furniture 
of the room in which it is placed. 

This design may be varied by using 2"x2"' legs and mortise 
and tenon joints for the ends and sides as shown in the con- 
struction of the stool on page 132. By making a cushion the 
same size as the top, this cabinet will make an excellent substi- 
tute for a regular stool. 

PLANT STAND 

In homes where flowers or ferns are kept indoors, a plant 
stand is much appreciated. The two circular shelves of the 
plant stand. Fig. 24, may vary from 12" to 14" in diameter, 
according to the height of the stand and the width of the 
lumber that is available. In case only a limited amount of wide 
stock is available, the lower shelf may be eliminated and two 
strips with a half lap joint in the middle may be used instead. 

The legs should be fastened to the shelves with dado joints 
cut in the shelves and especial care should be taken to have 
them fit accurately to make the stand as strong as possible. 
Long blued screws should be used to fasten the legs to the 
shelves. Small angle irons may also be used on the inside of 
the legs and under the top if they are needed to properly brace 
the stand. The dado joints may be accurately spaced by draw- 
ing two diameters of the circle perpendicular to each other. 

The designs of the legs A and B show shapes which lighten 
the appearance of the stand without weakening it structurally. 
Leg C shows a cut out design and leg D a design to be applied 
with water colors. If a design is applied to the top, it should 
be kept around the outer edge as shown in the drawing so 
that the flower pot will not cover it. 



120 



WOODWORKING 



Z. 



Wire 



rU- 






Weaving Frame Fig. 2 5 



^eavina needle 



lir 




5tep Ladder Fig. 26 



SIMPLE JOINT AND CONTOUR PROJECTS 121 

WEAVING FRAME 

The weaving frame and the needle for weaving, illustrated 
in Fig. 25, make excellent projects for a class which is organized 
as a factory class. In that way large numbers of these articles 
may be constructed for use by the pupils in the lower grades. 

These frames should be made of a tough wood so that the 
pieces between the saw cuts will not split out. The saw kerfs 
should be spaced the same distance apart and be of a uniform 
depth. Instead of using the saw kerfs to hold the warp, the end 
strips may be made narrower and the brads nailed in at intervals 
of Yi" . The bottom strips should be sunk level with the lower 
edge of the end and fastened with glue and screws. Pieces 
of stiff wire should be used at the sides to keep the material, 
which is being woven, of the same width throughout its length. 
Otherwise the weaving will be drawn in at the center. 

The weaving needle should be made of y%^' stock. The eye 
of the needle may be made by boring two holes a short distance 
apart and cutting out the wood that remains between. 

STEP LADDER 

The side pieces for the step ladder. Fig. 26, should be made 
out of y^" boards, 4^" wide. To lay off the dado joints for 
the ends of the steps, the T bevel should be set to give a slope 
of about 2" in 7" . The steps should be spaced about 12" apart. 
The dado joints in the sides should be cut Y^," deep. Screws 
about 2Y2" long should be used to fasten the steps securely to 
the sides. Some ladders are made very strong by putting small 
rods across the ladder under each step, with nuts on the ends 
to clamp the sides securely together. See page 219 for directions, 
for cutting threads on the ends of the rods. 

The back legs are joined by two cross cleats and two thin 
strips are used as diagonal cross braces. This part of the ladder 
is hinged to a board at the back of the top of the front legs. A 
canvas or leather strip may be used as shown in the drawing to 
prevent the ladder from spreading. Two wooden braces with 
notches in the ends, hinged at the back and fitting on a shelf, may 
be used to keep the ladder from closing. 

If the ladder is made higher than the dimension given in 
the drawing the width of the steps and the spread of the ladder 
must be increased to give a larger base and thus increase the 
stability of the ladder. 



122 



WOODWORKING 



5-ft 



4-ft 



3.ft 



Head downward 
on e)Jtnsionrod 




Jumping Standard 
Fig. 27 




Vaulting Standard 
FiG.26 



SIMPLE JOINT AND CONTOUR PROJECTS 123 

JUMPING STANDARD 

Track and gymnasium work are much more interesting when 
suitable apparatus is available. The high jump is one of the 
most interesting of the field events of a track meet. A suitable 
set of standards should be owned by every boy who aspires to 
be a high jumper. 

Fig. 27 shows a convenient jumping standard. The base 
consists of two 2x2s, 18" long and joined together with a cross 
lap joint. These cross pieces should be rounded out on the bot- 
tom as shown in the illustration so that they will not rock if the 
ground is slightly uneven. The corners should also be rounded 
to prevent a side jumper from stubbing his toe on the corner. 

The base should be fastened to an upright 2x2 from 65" to 
72'' high and braced with 4 triangular blocks which may be 
nailed or screwed in place. 

Care should be taken in boring the holes for the pins to hold 
the bar. They should be exactly perpendicular to the face of the 
standard. A hole every 2" will be close enough between the 3' 
and 4' marks and from 4' up they should be bored 1" apart. 

Instead of boring holes in the upright 2x2, finish nails may 
be nailed into the post to a uniform depth and a uniform dis- 
tance apart. 

VAULTING STANDARD 

The base for the vaulting standard may be constructed the 
same as the base of the jumping standard. The cross pieces 
should be slightly longer, however, on account of the higher 
standard. They will not be in the way because the pole vaulting 
is done from the front. The hollow post of the standard is made 
of Yz" material, carefully planed so that the hollow is exactly 
V square throughout its length. An extension rod an inch 
square and any desired length may then be inserted in this hol- 
low. A pin to hold the bar is inserted in the top of this exten- 
sion rod. The rod is raised and a pin inserted through the hol- 
low post below the end of the extension rod. This frame may 
also be used without an extension rod for high jumping up to 
4' 6", and for higher jumps by using a short extension rod. 

The heights of each hole should be plainly marked on the 
standard to eliminate the necessity of measuring the height of 
each vault. The length of the extension rod should be taken 
into consideration in marking the heights. 



124 



WOODWORKING 



ittji 



b 



n 

5ection A- A 



Detail of 
bracket 





.^ 



r R 



t — ^ D 

Electric Table Lamps Fig. 29 



^ 



SIMPLE JOINT AND CONTOUR PROJECTS 125 

ELECTRIC LAMPS 

A variety of designs and constructions are possible in elec- 
tric lamps. The base A of Fig. 29 shows a square type of de- 
sign. This base looks clumsy and uninteresting. It looks too 
much like a collection of blocks. The base B is the same size 
as base A with the design changed. The post is tapered and the 
stop chamfers on the edges give it a very attractive appearance. 
The block on the top is chamfered on the lower edges, giving a 
holding up effect to the design. The chamfers on the upper 
edges of the two base blocks and the stop chamfers on the lower 
edge of the large block give a much more pleasing effect to that 
part of the base. Fig. D shows another type of base in which 
curved base boards are used instead of regular chamfers. A 
better design is made in this case if one board is curved one 
way and one the other. 

Wire frames to be covered with silk or bamboo shades lined 
with silk can be purchased for shades. These small frames 
usually rest on the top of the light bulb. The shade should be 
secured first in order that the base may be constructed with the 
right proportions. 

The insulated wire cord usually enters at the side of the base 
board. A hole is bored horizontally to meet a vertical hole ex- 
tending through the upright stock. If the stock is too long to 
allow the hole to be bored all the way through, it should be bored 
from both ends and then bored the rest of the way with a red 
hot iron, slightly smaller than the finished hole. 

A small pipe, with threads on it for attaching the lamp 
socket, is fastened in the top of the hole in the top block. 

Fig. 29, C shows a hollow stock made of four thin boards 
glued together. This form of construction would look very bad 
if it were not for the stop chamfers on the edges, which call the 
attention away from the joint. 

Instead of the frame resting on the top of the light bulb, 
wooden arms may be screwed to the stock as shown in Fig. C. 
The screws are countersunk with a bit and rounded end dowels 
used to plug the holes. In cutting out these arms, the grain 
should run lengthwise in each arm. 

A floor lamp about 5' high may be constructed from a 
standard 3'^yi3" by sloping it to about 1^'' square at the top 
and using the stop chamfers along the sloping edges. A base 
modified from that used for the jumping standard may be used 
for this type of lamp. 



126 



WOODWORKING 



A-I^Sittp 



-i^ 



a- z'^Xep 




Bread Board ri6.30 




D--^^3tep 



i ■2 



11 i 



A-- 



5ect,on A- A 



1 "j 














1 


«.■• 


Drawing Board Fig. 31 


-- A 




o 





Vac 

■Washer 

Screw 



lVa3her^^ 

^V — Slat 

detail batton 



-*^\i 



Pastry Board fiG.3Z 



127 
EDGE JOINTING PROJECTS 

Edge jointing should be done with a jointer plane. The 
long base of this plane enables one to plane an edge true more 
easily than can be done with a smoothing plane. In joining 
large pieces together such as the boards in a table top, dowels 
are usually used to strengthen the joints. 

BREAD CUTTING BOARD 

A very attractive bread board may be made by gluing 
alternate strips of a white and a dark wood together. Pine and 
redwood ; black walnut and hard maple ; or whitewood and 
cherry make good color combinations for this project. Care 
must be taken to get good joints and strips of uniform width. 
The strips for this board should be about 16" long. After the 
glue has set, the surface may be planed smooth and cut to the 
desired shape. 

An ellipse to fit any length and width may be drawn by 
stretching a loop of cord tightly around small brads driven in 
at the points b — d — d Fig. 30 C, and swinging a pencil around 
in the loop as at D. Points d — d are located and set off with a 
piece of paper or compass as shown at B. 

DRAWING BOARD 

Drawing boards are usually made of thin lumber and need 
some device to keep them from warping. Fig. 31 shows the 
batten construction for one type of drawing board. Good edge 
jointing is very important on account of cracks interfering with 
the drawings. The battens are fastened by screws passed 
through washers sunk in auger bit holes. The joints for the 
screws on the outer boards should be elongated to allow for the 
contraction of the wood as it dries out. Otherwise the screws 
will break the glued strips apart and leave cracks. 

PASTRY BOARD 

A pastry board is apt to warp because it becomes damp and 
then dries out. The boards forming the pastry board are first 
glued together. The ends are then squared and a tongue cut 
across each end. A strip in which the grain runs lengthwise and 
having a groove corresponding to the tongue on the end of the 
board is glued on to the tongue. It is very essential that well 
seasoned lumber is used in this project. 



128 



WOODWORKING 





Sou^e //nes 



Checker Board Fig. 33 



f, II 



h* II -1 



zr 



T 

1 



-A ^ 






5ect/o/? A- A 






5ecTion E>'b 



'5top chamfe 





Pedestals Fig. 34 



EDGE JOINTING PROJECTS 129 

CHECKER BOARD 

A checker board may be made by gluing four strips of a 
dark wood, such as black walnut, alternately with four strips of 
a white wood such as hard maple or birch. These strips should 
be of a uniform width. If the strips are made 2" wide, they 
should be about 19" or 20" long to allow for waste in sawing. 
After the glue has set, one end should be planed square. Cross 
strips the same width as the original strips should be laid ofif 
across this glued up board as at A Fig. 33 allowing from ^" to 
jV" for the saw kerfs and squaring up the edges. These strips 
should be planed to the required width. Care should be taken to 
have the edges square so that they may be glued together. 
Every second strip should be turned end for end as shown in 
B, Fig. 33, so that the dark squares alternate with the light ones. 

Care should be taken to get the strips planed exactly 2" 
wide. Otherwise the edges will not match when the alternate 
strips are turned end for end. This can be easily done by fixing 
a jig so that the strips can only be planed to the desired width. 
See page 155 for suggestions for making jigs. 

Eight of these strips are needed to make a complete checker- 
board pattern. A border of wood carefully mitered at the 
corners should be added around the pattern and the entire top 
and bottom planed smooth. The checker board should then be 
finished with shellac. 

PEDESTAL 

A hollow pedestal demands very accurate edge jointing. 
Fig. 34 shows two simple designs for pedestals. The columns 
of each pedestal are made hollow by gluing four boards to- 
gether. The top should be made of 1^" or 1/4" lumber. It is 
fastened to the column by nailing a strip about an inch square 
to both the top and the column, in the angle between the two, 
forming a molding around the top of the column. In the column 
with sloping sides, the edges of this angle strip must be beveled 
to fit the angle formed by the side and the top. 

The base may be attached to the column by screwing the 
upper base board to the column and the lower board to the upper 
board from the under side. The corner blocks should be glued 
and screwed to the corners of the lower board. The height of a 
pedestal varies from 28 to 40 inches, according to the use to 
which it is to be put. 



130 



WOODWORKING 



A— -It — -A 






l-x 



'Top 



x'V 



Detail A' A 
'5'cfe rail 



■^ End rail- 




buttjoint-^ 



Detail b£> 



Kitchen Table Fig. 35 



ts 



A 



'Designed fabric 
Card board 

'Q/QS5 




^4' 3oard Te/t 
Detail A- A 



:^ <^ <2h 



Handle 



Serving Tray Fig. 36 



131 

MITRE JOINT PROJECTS 

The most frequent mitre joint is one of 45°. Since a 
diagonal of a square makes an angle of 45° with the sides, 
such an angle can be easily laid off and sawed with a back saw. 
A mitre box enables one to saw such an angle more accurately 
than can usually be done without guides. 

KITCHEN TABLE 

The kitchen table shown in Fig. 35 is made with detachable 
legs. The legs are fastened in the corner by a lag screw which 
passes through a brace attached to the end and side rails. The 
detail of this construction is shown in the illustration. The 
braces across the corners have the ends mitred at an angle of 45°. 
The ends of each brace are then screwed to the end and side 
rails. Some tables have these braces fitted into the rails with 
dovetail joints. A lag screw inserted in one corner of a leg 
through this brace will draw it tightly against the ends of the 
rails. 

The top of the table forms a good project in edge jointing. 
The joints in the table top may be strengthened by jointing 
them with dowels when they are glued together. The top is 
fastened to the side and end rails by screws countersunk in the 
tops of these rails from the inside in a slanting position. 

SERVING TRAY 

A serving tray may be made by using strips of wood with 
the lower edges rabbeted as in a picture frame and the upper 
edges beveled toward the glass. The sides and ends are put 
together with mitre joints. See page 154 for suggestion for 
making a clamp for mitre joints in a picture frame. The rabbet 
is cut deep enough to allow for the thickness of the glass and a 
piece of designed fabric under it. A thin board extends under 
the fabric to the edges of the tray and is nailed to the lower 
edge of the frame. A layer of felt should be glued to the bottom 
of this board to eliminate noise when the tray is set down. Han- 
dles should be screwed to this frame as shown in the detail at 
Fig. 36. 

A picture frame may be made in a similar way by cutting a 
deeper rabbet in the frame, leaving off the handles and setting 
a wood back in the rabbet instead of having it extend to the 
outer edges of the bottom of the frame. 



132 



WOODWORKING 



ID 



□ 



[*2-WK- 



12- 
16" 



See deta//^ 



u 



.1 J 



Wi\ 




.2V| 



4i 



ti 



T' 



~-\^' Tenon 



h 





\ 




m "* 




§^ •"I+ 


t 

D 



u 



Point which marhi 
center of oppos/te_^ 
ho/e 



f=| 



u 



3^. 



Placed in hole 
already bored 



Detail cf dowel marker 



5tools Fig. 57 



133 
MORTISE AND TENON JOINT PROJECTS 

The details for laying out and making a mortise and tenon 
joint are given on page 90. This is one of the strongest joints 
that can be made. It may be made more secure by boring a 
hole through the outer piece and the tenon and inserting a 
dowel in the hole. Fine furniture often has the dowels show- 
ing on the outside to indicate the quality of construction. 



MISSION STOOLS 

A mission stool offers many opportunities for variation in 
structure and design. A, Fig. 2>7 , shows a footstool 9" high, 
13" wide and 16'' long. It is joined with mortise and tenon 
joints (See page 90). On account of the small size of the legs, 
the tenons must overlap in the center of the leg. A portion is 
cut out of the lower side of one tenon and a similar piece cut 
out of the upper side of the other tenon as shown in the detail 
of the joint in the illustration. This makes a much stronger 
joint than cutting all of the lap from one tenon. A mortise and 
tenon joint may be made much stronger by nailing or doweling 
from the inside of each leg through each tenon after it has been 
glued. The top of this stool may be upholstered or caned. Fcvr 
the details of these processes see page 62. 

A separate frame must be made for the top of design A when 
it is caned. Design B is one which may have a woven or caned 
top without making a separate frame for it. The side rail is set 
low on the legs and a dowel is placed near the upper end for a 
support for the woven top. This design makes a double seat. 

Design C has the side rail eliminated and two dowels placed 
on each side. This enables one to weave a seat consisting of a 
single layer, because the ends can be carried around the lower 
dowel and back up over the outside of the upper dowel. 

Design D shows a dowel construction in which two dowel 
pins are used in each butt joint instead of a mortise and tenon 
joint. A set of dowel markers are desirable in using this con- 
struction in order to get the holes in the legs and the ends of 
the rails accurately centered. A dowel marker is placed in each 
hole in an end of a side rail and the rail is tapped with a hammer 
after it is in position over the leg. The spur on each marker 
marks the center of each of the opposite holes in the leg. See 
page 156 for doweling trick when dowel markers are not avail- 
able. This design also shows a tapered leg and a variation in 
the shape of the side rails. 



134 



WOODWORKING 



r~\ 



/~\ 



With or without ^ 
mirror 



•X 



'a 



Butt Brace 
Construction 



o 



/ 
,/ 



u}^ 



IZ 



Slot Construction 



Mortise 
Con 



ANo Tenon 

STRUCTION 



Z} 



C05TUMEK5 FiG 38 



MORTISE AND TENON JOINT PROJECTS 135 

COSTUMER 

The common type of costumer consists of a square post, 
usually containing four hooks, attached to a base having four 
legs or projections which are braced to the post. This type of 
costumer is so easily designed and constructed that a working 
drawing of it is not given in this text. 

Fig. 38 gives the details for a much more convenient cos- 
tumer. This costumer consists of two side strips 1" x 3" x 69", 
joined to three cross bars with mortise and tenon joints. The 
space between the two upper cross bars may be left open or a 
mirror may be placed in it. If a mirror is used, it should be pur- 
chased before the frame is made so that the opening may be 
made the right size to fit the mirror. A mirror 10" x 14" is a 
standard size and works in well with this design. The edges of 
the cross pieces and sides around the mirror should be rabbeted 
before gluing them together. A thin board or pasteboard should 
be placed over the back of the mirror to protect it. 

The space between the lower and middle cross bars should 
be broken with a group of "fillers," made of ^"xl3^" or 
Yi" yiV/i" material. These "fillers" should be fastened with 
shallow mortise and tenon joints and be grouped in a pleasing 
arrangement. A group of three of these "fillers" is shown in the 
illustration. 

The side strips may be fastened and braced to the bases in 
a variety of ways. These bases may be 3" x 3" pieces, hollowed 
out on the lower side and attached to the side strips by means of 
long screws. The bases may also be made of 1%" boards with 
blocks glued to the bottoms. The sides must be firmly braced 
with the bases. A good design for braces for this kind of base 
is also shown in the drawing. The two lower detail drawings of 
bases show a slot construction fitting over a thin base board and 
also a mortise and tenon construction for the base and side 
strips. 

From 3 to 6 hooks may be arranged on each side of the 
costumer around the mirror. This gives much more room than 
can be secured on a costumer with a single post. The hooks 
should be of a finish that will harmonize well with the color 
of the stain used on the woodwork of the costumer. 

One can easily modify this design to include an umbrella 
rack at the base. This should be placed on the side next to 
the wall so that the front of the costumer is clear for hanging 
long cloaks and overcoats on it. 



136 



WOODWORKING 




-Composition 
board iihick 

Detail of J- feme' ^iTr 



T 



3' 7 - 




Movable Bulletin Board 
Fig. 39 



MORTISE AND TENON JOINT PROJECTS 137 

MOVABLE BULLETIN BOARD 

A movable bulletin board is a valuable addition to the equip- 
ment of any school room. Fig. 39 shows a rectangular shaped 
bulletin board with both sides available for mountings. A group 
of these boards or frames arranged in a row and fastened to- 
gether at the top makes an excellent space for a room exhibit. 
Several rows of these boards, arranged in a large room will 
provide enough space for an exhibit for a whole school. The 
advantages of such a series of frames for exhibit purposes over 
a wall exhibit are : (1) the frame lends itself to better advantage 
for artistic decoration ; (2) the exhibit does not have to be hung 
up in a hurry, but one frame may be finished at a time and set 
away in a vacant room until -the day of the exhibit ; (3) more 
time may be given to the artistic arrangement of the material ; 
and (4) the bases may be taken off and the frames crated for 
shipment to a fair or other distant point where the exhibits of 
various schools are placed in competition. 

The main part of the frame is put together with mortise and 
tenon joints. The sides and ends of this frame are grooved 
y^" wide and ^" deep and a panel of 14" composition board 
is set in this groove. The mortise and tenon joints are then 
glued and doweled to make them firm and hold the frame square. 

The bases are slightly hollowed out on the bottom to make 
the frame more stable on an uneven floor. The bases are at 
least 26" in length and are fastened to the bottoms of the sides 
by long screws countersunk in the bottom of the base. Braces 
are fastened on both the side pieces and the bases with blued 
screws. The frames are easily packed for shipment in a crate 
by loosening the bottom screw and the top screws of the 
braces and sliding the braces off. When they are set up only 
the bottom screw and those in the braces need to be set in 
place and tightened. 

This project makes an excellent factory project for a class 
when a considerable number of these frames are to be made, 
by having dififerent groups of workmen perform different opera- 
tions in the construction of all of the frames. 

A stationary bulletin board to be attached to the wall may 
be made in a similar way, leaving off the legs. 

Both the frame and the mounting board should be painted. 
A more artistic effect can be obtained by painting the frame a 
darker color but one that harmonizes well with the color of the 
composition board. 



13S 



WOODWORKING 




E^^^^S 



Fly 5creen Fig. 40 





^:^ 




1 11 




[ 1 


;■ 


h 


1 \ II 




V 





Removable board 




Fly Trap 
Fig. 4 1 




Screen wire -jold on dattfd linet 




Fly Swatter Fig.4Z 



MORTISE AND TENON JOINT PROJECTS 139 

FLY SCREEN 

Fly screens may be more quickly made with cross lap 
joints, but a good workman prefers to make them with mortise 
and tenon joints. The dimensions of a screen vary with the 
size of the window casing. Fig. 40 shows a well proportioned 
screen. The cross bar in the middle is omitted in small screens. 
The wire is usually put on first by tacking, then by nailing a 
rounded strip over the edge of the wire. In placing the wire, 
one end should be fastened first, care being taken that the 
cross wires are parallel to the nailing strip. The wire should 
then be stretched and the opposite strip nailed in place. The two 
sides may then be nailed on in the same way. If an end and 
then a side are nailed on before the next end is nailed the wire 
is apt to "buckle." The bottom of a screen is beveled to fit 
the sill of the window casing. 

FLY TRAP 

Not only is it desirable to keep the flies out of the house, 
but it is also desirable to kill as many of them as possible. Fig. 
41 shows a convenient and easily constructed fly trap. The 
frame may be made with common butt joints and covered with 
fly screening. The top should be made of boards, the central 
one being movable so that the dead flies may be removed occa- 
sionally. A conical projection of screen wire with a small open- 
ing in the top is placed over a hole in the base, about 6" in 
diameter. A dish of sv/eetened water is placed under this hole 
to attract the flies. They fly upward and enter the trap through 
the hole and will stay in the trap, because they will not crawl 
downward through the hole. 

FLY SWATTER 

A fly swatter may be made out of a piece of screen wire 
6'' X 10". The wire should be folded on the dotted lines as 
shown in Fig. 42. The laps should be sewed with strong string. 
This swatter may be mounted in a handle in which a saw kerf 
has been cut, by nailing or riveting the sides of the handle to- 
gether over the end of the screen. 

The edges of this swatter should be covered with binding 
tape in order to prevent scratching the furniture when the 
swatter hits it. The girls of the sewing class may co-operate 
in making this project. 



140 



WOODWORKING 



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Drawer detail 



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^ide rail- 



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drawer- 
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Top front mil 

doyetail 



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Section A 



Section B 



Drawerway 

bottom front 
rail 




Mortne 
Q' d tenon 



Section C 



ll lllll l 

J D L 



Library Tablls 
fiG.43 



MORTISE AND TENON JOINT PROJECTS 141 

LIBRARY TABLE 

A library table is a difficult woodworking project and should 
only be attempted after the worker has had a great deal of 
experience in making smaller articles involving the same kinds 
of joints. 

The frame should be made first because the top will tend 
to warp unless it is immediately fastened to the frame. The 
legs of a library table should vary from ly^' square to 3" square, 
depending on the design and size of the table. The standard 
height of a table is 30". 

The table top should be from \" to 1^'' in thickness. It 
may be placed on top of the legs or each leg may be beveled to 
a point at the top and the top of the table set down level with the 
lower edge of the bevel, the corners being cut out for the projec- 
tions of the legs as shown at F, Fig. 43. The top is fastened to 
the frame by rabbeted blocks, screwed to the top and turned into 
grooves cut in the rails as. shown in section A. These blocks 
allow the top to contract and expand without pulling the joints 
apart. 

The design of a library table is affected to a large extent by 
grouping and shaping the slats in the end. Four designs for the 
end are shown in the illustration. The shelf may be mortised 
into each cross piece and fastened with blued screws or it may 
be mortised entirely through the cross pieces and fastened by 
screws from the bottom of the cross piece. A much easier con- 
struction than either of the preceding is to screw strips about 
V square and 2" less in length than the width of the shelf, to 
the cross pieces below the end of the shelf and then screw the 
shelf to these strips. 

Plenty of drawer room is very desirable in a library table. 
This design has two drawers occupying almost the entire space 
in the table. They are separated in the center by a narrow up- 
right strip which is mortised to the bottom and top rails. These 
drawers slide on a rail which is fastened across the frame just 
beneath the drawer. The front of each drawer is fastened to 
the sides of the drawer by a blind dove-tail joint or a rabbet 
joint in which the sides are nailed to the front strip. The rabbet 
joint is the easier to make and is usually used on cheaply cour 
structed tables. The bottom of the drawer is fitted into a 
groove extending across the front and along both sides. The 
back of the drawer is fastened to the sides with a dado joint 
and rests upon top of the bottom. 



142 



WOODWORKING 





Top Vie-w 



4 



T I 



PRONT View 




b 



T 



m. 



Porch Swings 
Fig. 44 



MORTISE AND TENON JOINT PROJECTS 143 

PORCH SWING 

The essential features of a porch swing are: (1) that it is 
strongly built and (2) that it is comfortable. There are two 
general types of porch swings, one with vertical slats in the 
back and the other with horizontal slats. Since the construction 
with horizontal slats lends itself to a curved back and is there- 
fore more comfortable, it is used in the design shown in Fig. 44. 

The horizontal slats may vary in width to suit the design 
worked out by the student. Those used in the swing shown in 
the illustration are ^"x3"x48", with 1" spaces between them. 
These slats may be nailed on with heavy brads which are set 
below the surface so that they will not catch on the clothing. 

The side and end rails may be fastened to the upright 2x2s 
with mortise and tenon joints or they may be bolted to these 
rails as shown in end B in the illustration. The arm rest is 
fastened to the uprights with screws. Slats may be used to fill 
up the space in the ends between the arm rests and the bottom 
rails. 

The three cleats on the back are screwed at the bottom to 
the back uprights and the back rail. A notch is cut in the back 
of the arm rests and the end cleats of the back bolted to the 
backs of the arm rests. A strip across the top of the three 
back cleats braces the back lengthwise. The cleats on the back 
may be made straight or they may be curved as shown in the 
design C in the drawing. The seat may also be curved in a 
similar way to make it more comfortable. 

Porch swings are usually swung by means of two chains. 
These chains may be attached to the swing in two ways. The 
detail at D shows a hook which may be attached to the uprights 
with lag screws. This throws the points of support for the 
chains high on the swing so that this type of attachment makes 
the swing very stable. Directions for making these hooks are 
given on page 225. If a forge is not available they may be made 
by a blacksmith. The detail at E shows a ring hook for attach- 
ing the chains to the projections of the bottom rails shown in 
design B. The directions for making ring bolts are also given 
on page 225. 

Unless both ceiling hooks can be screwed into the joists of 
the ceiling of the porch, a cross cleat should be screwed to the 
ceiling and the hooks screwed through that to the ceiling in 
order to give greater holding power to these hooks. 



144 



WOODWORKING 




5aw Buck Fig. 45 




Top detar/ 
36" — 




5aw HoR6E 
Fig. 46 



145 

FARM PROJECTS 

There are many useful farm appliances that can be made by 
the beginner in woodworking. A few of the most practical of 
these are described on pages 145 to 153. Additional farm projects 
are also described in the section on School-Home Projects. 

SAW BUCK 
A saw buck is not as important an accessory of the wood 
lot as it was before the advent of the power saw, altho it is still 
a valuable piece of apparatus to have for repair work and saw- 
ing small amounts of wood. Fig. 45 shows a substantial and 
easily constructed saw buck. The legs are made out of 2" x 3" 
material and are held together by a cross lap joint and a cross 
brace on each end. The two pairs of legs are held together by a 
cross bar in the center of each joint and two cross braces sunk 
in the edges of the legs. One leg may be laid on top of the 
other and the legs spread out to the given distance to mark the 
slant for the joints. A bit hole from \" to \y\" in diameter 
should be bored through the center of each lap joint and the 
ends of the cross bar rounded to fit tightly in these holes. The 
ends may be fastened by toe-nailing through the legs into the 
cross piece. 

SAW HORSE 

Every woodworker should have at least two saw horses of a 
convenient height. Fig. 46 shows a very convenient and sub- 
stantial saw horse. The wide top allows space enough for a V 
slit along the top, which may be used for ripping small pieces 
by laying them lengthwise over this slit. The slit is made by 
boring two holes about 19" or 20" apart with an inch bit and 
sawing out the rest of the slit with a compass saw and a rip 
saw. 

The detail drawing at A, Fig. 46, shows how the cuts are 
made for giving the proper slant to the legs. The legs and also 
the cross braces on the ends should be fastened Avith screws as 
nails will tend to work loose. 

Saw horses should always be used in ripping a board since 
it is in a position for the saw to be held at the proper angle for 
ripping (45°). A saw should not be held perpendicular to a 
board in ripping, which is the usual position when a board is 
held in a vise to be ripped. 



146 



WOODWORKING 




«^ 



B 



5/tding board 



Detail-Gate Latch 

Farm Gates Fig. 47 



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FARM PROJECTS 147 

FARM GATES 

The making of a farm gate that will not sag is not a dif- 
ficult problem if the braces are put on in a correct way. Fig. 47 
shows two methods of bracing a gate. In gate B a single brace 
is used. If only one brace is used, it should run from the upper 
corner near the hinge diagonally across the gate to the lower 
corner of the opposite end. This brace should be bolted to the 
top and bottom boards and nailed to each of the other boards. 
A brace put on in this way will exert a pull on the lower front 
corner and also on each board tp which it is nailed. This will 
tend to keep the gate from sagging much better than if the 
brace were slanted from the bottom to the top. 

The system of bracing used in gate A is very good because 
it makes use of the triangular construction which is used* in 
trussing the supports for large roofs and also in bridge work for 
long spans. This design is more difficult to make than that in 
which a single brace is used, but it gives a much more artistic 
appearance to a gate and is particularly well adapted to long 
gates. 

These gates may be made out of J'8''x6'' boards. Two 
boards should be used on each end and in the middle of gate A. 
These cross boards should be bolted to the ends of the long 
boards at the top and bottom. Clinched nails will be strong 
enough to hold the other joints. 

The hinge shown in the illustration is a slot and pin type, 
the details of which are given on page 225. These hinges should 
be bolted to the top and bottom boards of the gate. The pins are 
set in the post by boring a hole with a bit slightly smaller than 
the pin and driving the pin in this hole. If concrete posts are 
used, these pins may be molded in the post at the proper dis- 
tances from the ground. 

A convenient latch for a farm gate is shown in detail in 
the drawing at the bottom of the illustration. It consists of a 
board sliding in the opening between two of the boards. Two 
cross strips should be nailed across the space at the left end of 
this slide. A wood pin is placed through the latch to move it 
back and forth. A slot should be cut in the latch to allow it to 
work back and forth over a bolt through the front boards. A 
notch to fit the latch should be cut in the post opposite. 

The post to which the gate is swung should be thoroughly 
braced to prevent the free end of the gate from dragging on 
the oround. 



148 



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5\{)Z. BOAKD 



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25 

bo/»Ze/~ c/eoti ^ 



25 4^ — 24- ^ 

5iOE View of Box 



'End ^ate 



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Gate rods 



i i i * i 



38" or 40' 

End View 




Stake iron- 
Detail -Side of Box 



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It 



End View Without Bed 



De.tail-5take Ikon 



Combination \hlkQ,0H Box 
Fig. 46 



FARM PROJECTS 149 

COMBINATION WAGON BOX 

The combination wagon box shown in Fig. 48 has three 
uses. Side boards and end gates may be added, formmg a 
regular sized wagon box. Stakes may be placed in the end 
irons and the bed, without the side boards, used as a wood 
rack. By adding the high sides and end gates described on 
page 187, the bed may be used to make a hog rack. These three 
uses make this combination bed one of the most useful pieces of 
farm equipment. 

The bottom of this bed is made of the best grade of tongue 
and grooved flooring, which is screwed to four cross cleats as 
shown in the drawing. The width between the bolster stakes 
of the running gears of a wagon varies. The width of the par- 
ticular wagon for which this bed is made should be accurately 
measured before its construction is begun. The sides of the box 
are made of 2" x 6" boards, surfaced on sides and edges. These 
side pieces are bolted to the bottom by four ^" bolts, the heads 
of which are countersunk level with the tops of the sides. These 
bolts extend through the flooring and the cleats. Additional 
strength may be given to this construction by nailing the bottom 
to the sides. Foot rests on the side of the box may be made by 
extending the two middle cleats 5'' beyond the sides and bolting 
a l"x4" board to the ends of these cleats. 

The irons for the sides are made with large slots so that they 
will be large enough for the heavy stakes which are used for the 
woodrack. The details for making these irons are given on 
page 223. These irons are bolted to the sides, the heads of the 
bolts being countersunk level with the inside surface of a side. 

The side boards are made of y^" boards nailed to 4 stakes 
which fit into the iron slots. This makes the sides of the base 
project \" farther in than the inside surface of the side boards. 
The end gates should be made as long as the inside distance 
between the side boards, sawing out a notch in each end to allow 
for the projections of the side pieces of the bed. These end 
gates may be held in place by nailing cleats to the inside of 
each side board and clamping the sides together with rods at 
the end gates. A chain may be used across the sideboards in 
the middle to prevent spreading when hauling grain in the 
bulk. 

This wagon box, as well as the other farm appliances which 
are exposed to the weather, should be painted to increase its 
durability. 



150 



WOODWORKING 



42- 




Plow Doubletree Fi<3.49 




Three Horse Evener Fig. 50 




:---5 



Wagon Jack Fig. 51 



FARM PROJECTS 151 

PLOW DOUBLETREE 

A plow doubletree may be easily made in a farm workshop. 
Fig. 49 gives the dimensions of a simple design. The evener bar 
may be made of oak or hickory and the singletrees should be 
made of hickory on account of the extra strength needed in 
these parts. 

The evener is 1^" x4^''' x 42". Triangular strips may be 
cut off the back side, thus making the evener lighter without 
diminishing its strength to any considerable extent. The hole 
for the clevis pin should be put near the front edge because the 
strain is on the back side of the evener. 

Single trees l3/2"x3"x32" may be constructed in a similar 
manner. These singletrees may be fastened to the evener with 
pieces of strip iron and bolts. The clips on the end are put on 
by means of bolts extending through the end and braced by an 
iron strip on the back side of the singletree. The construction 
of these clips is described on page 225. 



THREE-HORSE EVENER 

The doubletree may also be used as a part of the three- 
horse evener shown in Fig. 50. The clevis hole -in this evener 
should be bored 19" from the doubletree attachment and 38" 
from the singletree attachment. This evens up the load equally 
for the three horses. Longer irons must he used for the attach- 
ment of the singletree. Instead of making the clips for the 
singletrees they may be purchased and the ends of the single- 
trees shaped to fit them. 



WAGON JACK 

The handle of the wagon jack shown in Fig. 51 is bolted 
to the uprights. The axle is held in a raised position by means 
of a bent rod or heavy wire attachment. The notches for this 
attachment may be made by boring holes with a bit along the 
central line of an 8" board, A, Fig. 51, and then ripping the 
board through the centers of these holes. The structure of the 
base of this wagon jack is simple and gives a wider footing than 
is usually found on a wagon jack and thus makes it more stable. 

On account of the heavy strain on this piece of apparatus, 
it should be made out of a hard, tough wood. See page 40. 



152 



WOODWORKING 



D, JL 



A 




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C 



XI 



IT 



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Broom or Hat Fork Racks Fig. 52 



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5tonl Boat Fig. 53 



FARM PROJECTS 153 



BROOM OR HAY FORK HOLDER 

A rack to hold brooms or hay forks is a convenience on any 
farm. Fig. 52 shows three designs for such racks. Design A 
consists of two horizontal bars nailed or bolted to an upright 
piece wide enough to allow the handles of the brooms or forks 
to be put between them, but not wide enough to let them slip 
through. These bars may be lengthened to hold any number 
of forks or brooms. Design B shows another type of bar, ar- 
ranged on a vertical piece in the same manner. This bar is more 
solidly braced than the one shown in A. The arrangement 
shown in B, if made strong enough, may also be used for a 
harness rack. Design C is the more conventional type of design 
for a broom holder. This may also be used for a hay fork holder 
by making the openings large enough. 

Since these holders will be used indoors, they need not be 
painted because they are not exposed to the weather. If one of 
these designs is used in the house, however, it should be stained 
or painted to match the woodwork of the room in which it is 
used. 



STONE BOAT 

Many farms in the glacial region have large stones left on 
the surface of the soil. Too much labor is required to lift these 
heavy stones into a wagon. A stone boat, which is merely a low 
sled consisting of two flat runners with boards nailed across 
them as shown in Fig. 53, makes a convenient means for hauling 
them off the land. 

These stone boats are useful in other ways. They are very 
convenient for use in hauling a plow or harrow to a field. Seed 
wheat, oats, rye, etc., may also be conveniently hauled to the 
field and save much useless lifting into and from a high wagon. 
In the autumn, these stone boats are often useful in gathering 
corn in low, marshy land when there has been a great deal of 
rain and the ground is too soft to support a regular wagon. If it 
is made long enough, stakes may be set in each end and it may 
be used to haul in fodder from the field. 

The runners may be made out of square timbers about 
5" X 5" or they may be round pieces cut from a small tree. The 
boards should be securely nailed to these runners. The curve 
in the front should be gradual as the stone boat pulls more 
easily than when the front is too blunt. 



154 



JIGS AND TRICKS 

There are many ways of shortening the time and simplifying 
the operations on wood working projects, provided an operation 
is duplicated a sufficient number of times to make it worth while 
to construct jigs for holding, guiding or controlling the laying 
out or cutting of materials. Some jigs can be made adjustable 
so that they will fit materials of different proportions, requiring 
the same kind of operations. It is well to have such jigs avail- 
able so that when a rush job is needed much time can be saved 
in the laying out and making even if the design of the project 
has to be slightly altered to suit the supply of jigs. 

There have also been evolved many easy ways of doing cer- 
tain operations or simple ways of holding materials while they 
are being worked upon. 

The drawings which follow offer a few suggestions as to 
the use of jigs and tricks. 



Tenon Cutting Jig 




Boring Trick 



..A.^ 




Tenon Cutting- Jig. A — Saw. B — Wood on which tenon i.s beinp: cut. 
C — Guide block. D — Removable block. E — Cardboard the thickness of saw 
blade. F — Back block. G — Saw kerf. H — Saw kerf made in mitre box. 
I — Wing- nuts and bolts. By changing the size of the removable block, 
various sizes of tenons can be cut with this jig. 

Boring Trick. A — Brace and bit. B — Hand screws. C — Boards to be 
doweled together. 




AdjuNtahle Mitered Frame Clamp. A — Arms. B — Holding blocks. C — • 
Saw kerf to take up excess glue from joint. D — Hand screw. E — Frame. 
F — Holes for changing position of holding blocks to fit any frame. 



JIGS 




Planing Jig. When a number of duplicate pieces are to be edged to a 
given width, this jig insures a straight, square edge. A — Plane track. B — 
Cutting limit of plane blade. C — Side guides for keeping plane straight 
and square. D — Space for board. E — Board being edged. 

Sawing Jig. A — Angle' irons controlling depth of cut. B — Saw slot. 
C — Block clamped against back of mitre box to control position of cut. 
D — Hand screw holding block. 




Mortise Templet. A — Table leg. B — Metal templet for laying out 
mortise. C — Opening the size of the tenon. 

Boring Box. A — Guide wall. B- — Guide holes. C — Brace and bit. D — 
Clamp screw. E — Guide block. F — Stock being bored. 



BoRiNCi Gauge 




Boring Gauge. A — 

Auger bit. B — Stock 
being bored. C — Depth 
gauge. D — Set screw. 
Depth Gauges. A — 

Dado joint. B — Depth 
testing block. C — Gauge 
screws. D — Auger bit 
hole. 




Depth Gauges 



156 



JIGS AND TRICKS 





Doweling Trick 




F 






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Doweling Trick. A — Small nails. B — Edges which have been jointed. 
C — Hand sciew for guiding the boards straight. D — Nails with heads cut 
off. E — Holes punched by nails. F — Pencil marks showing sides which 
come together. When nails are pulled out, the locations for dowels are 
marked on both boaids. 



Wood Fastening Devise 




Dowe/ rod 



I'eg or Checker Sawinj? Jig. A — Large auger bit hole. B — Saw kerf. 
C — Distance between saw kerf and edge of hole, or length of peg to be 
sawed off. D— *I>owel rod. 

Wood FaKteninjr Device. A dowel rod inserted as above illustrated will 
prevent sciews from pulling out of end giain wood. 



Curve Cutting 





Curve Cutting Trick, Cutting to curved lines without a turning or 
coping saw can be accomplished as above illustrated. A — Saw kerfs. B — 
Chisel. 



TRICKS 



157 







pP 


Holding Trick 


3 


*- 



Holding- Trick. When a board is too long to be held in a vise, a hand 
screw clamped onto the end of the board as above illustrated will keep the 
board in position. 




Chamfering Triok. A board clamped in a hand screw and vise as above 
illustrated, may be held at any angle. 

Boring Trick. Narrow^ stock may be kept from splitting when holes 
are being bored through it, if it is tightly clamped between the jaws of a 
hand screw or vise, during the operation. 



-d 


f^ 


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^ 

^ 
^ 


Sawing Trick 

b^ r 

<^ B 


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' ^ 



Sa«ing Trick. The edges of a dado joint can be accurately sawed if a 
square edged block is clamped along the salving line and the saw held 
tightly against it. A shows the first cut. B shows the gauge block being 
set to fit the stock. Once this is set, the stock is removed and the second 
cut made. 



158 

THE FACTORY CLASS 

In constructing a wood working project, one gets a fairly 
good idea concerning the uses of tools even though he does not 
have enough experience to become skilful in their" manipulation. 
Skill and speed are acquired only by repeated practice. If it is 
desired to make a quantity of any one kind of project it can be 
made more quickly and the results will be more uniform if the 
class is organized as a factory, each workman to do his group 
of operations on all projects rather than to make one complete 
project. In this kind of a class the unskilful worker can be 
given the easiest assignment while the most skilful worker can 
be assigned the most difficult task. 

Suppose, for example, it is desired to make twenty-five plant 
stands according to the design on page 118 and that only ten 
boys are in the class. The best all around workman can be 
appointed foreman and he should make a complete cutting bill 
showing how many pieces of each size it will take for the entire 
order. This cutting bill should be checked by another workman 
and finally by the teacher. 

Next, the various operations necessary to transform lumber 
into these finished stands must be tabulated. In this example 
they are as follows : 

1. Getting out material. 

2. Laying out sizes. 

3. Sawing out stock. 

4. Surfacing broad faces. 

5. Planing working edges of legs, in a jig. 

6. Planing second edges of legs, in a jig. 

7. Sawing working ends of legs, in a mitre box. 

8. Sawing legs to length, in a mitre box, with a jig. 

9. Smoothing broad faces of tops and shelves. 

10. Laying out shapes of tops and shelves. 

11. Sawing away waste wood on tops and shelves. 

12. Smoothing to exact dimensions. 

13. Laying out joints in tops. 

14. Cutting out joints in tops. 

15. Locating points for screws in legs, using jigs. 

16. Boring holes for screws. 

17. Sandpapering, using r:are not to narrow the legs at the 

joints. 

18. Assembling. 

19. Staining. 

20. Shellacing. 

21. Sanding. 

22. Waxing. 



THE FACTORY CLASS 159 

23. Bookkeeping, tabulating time slips and recording ma- 
terials used. 

The assignments are then made. While some workmen are 
getting out material, those unassigned can be making jigs for 
use in some of the operations. Two planing jigs will be neces- 
sary and, since so many pieces of the same size are to be used, 
more than one workman should be assigned to planning in 
order to keep the other "departments" working. 

It is interesting for each member of this factory class to 
keep a record of the time he spends on each operation, to see 
if he increases his output in any given unit of time. It also 
makes an interesting study to see how much time it takes to 
complete the entire job. 

The foreman should keep a careful check on all pieces, 
rejecting those which cannot be corrected and noting on the 
workman's time slip the waste in material and the time lost. 

As the work carries over from day to day, the workmen 
can be shifted from one operation to another, or if a workman 
proves to be inefficient in quality of work or speed, he may be 
reassigned to a simpler task. 

Bench hooks, bench stops, drawers for nail cabinet, window 
ventilators, exhibit screens, etc., make excellent factory class 
projects since they are always needed in quantities in the shop 
or school. 

The shop should be arranged so that the work is begun at 
one end of the room and the materials passed from bench to 
bench as each operation is completed. It is sometimes advis- 
able to have the pupils work in pairs or groups on certain op- 
erations, thus minimizing lost motion and also hastening the 
production. 

Much thought must be given to the construction of jigs, 
and pupils should be encouraged to create jigs or design im- 
provements in those already made. It should be pointed out 
that the jigs in a class of this kind, take the place of the power 
machinery in a factory. Pages 154 to 158 give examples of jigs 
suitable for work of this kind. 

Work carried on according to this factory organization, 
if accompanied by a study of the jigs and tools used in a 
factory", will prove to be of intense interest, especially if the 
class can visit a factory in operation. 



160 



/iouse. Tray 




SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 

GARDENING 

Gardening is one of the most popular school-home projects 
because it requires little equipment, can be carried on during 
the summer vacation and yields quick returns. In connection 
with gardening, one linds a variety of very interesting con- 
structive projects. 

In the northern states, many plants must be started in 

house trays or hotbeds and 
transplanted to the garden when 
the danger of frost is past. Fig- 
ure 1 shows a simple tray which 
can be made from the lumber 
in a dry goods box. This tray 
should be kept in a room in 
which the temperature does not 
fall below 65° F. after the seeds 
are planted. It should be kept 
in front of a south window after 
the plants are up in order to give them as much sunlight as 
possible. The legs of the tray should be made the same height 
as the window sill. 

The seeds should be planted in rows 2" apart and the plants 
later thinned to 2" apart in each row. The plants, which are 
taken out in. thinning, may be transplanted in other trays or 
boxes. A tray with outside dimensions of 22" x 26" is large 
enough to start about 100 plants. These plants may be trans- 
planted, when large enough, to a cold frame and gradually 
hardened to the weather. Transplanting develops more hardy 
root systems and more thrifty plants are thus produced. 

The hotbed is the method used by a large gardener for 
starting his early plants. Two methods are used to furnish 
heat for a hotbed. One is to run steam pipes in an air space 
under the tray containing the plants. The other is to fill the 
pit below the soil with manure which ferments and supplies 
the necessary heat. Since the steam heating is only prac- 
ticable when plants . are raised on a large scale, the manure 
type of hotbed is the one usually used by small growers. 

Any style of glass sash may be used to cover a hotbed. 
One can often buy old sash in the neighborhood which will 
serve the purpose fairly well. Standard hotbed sash are 3' x 6\ 



GARDENING 



161 



PzrmQne.nt Hotbzd 




Fig.£ 






These sash can usually be purchased more cheaply than they 
can be made by hand. 

Two standard hotbed sash will provide sufficient space 
for plants for a small garden. An excavation 6' long, 6' wide 
and 30" deep should be made for a permanent hotbed of this 
size. Stakes may be driven in each corner about an inch from 
each side of this excavation and boards slipped behind them 
and nailed. The stakes at the higher end of the bed should 
project 18" above the surface of the ground and the lower stakes 
in front should project 12". Fig. 
2 shows a cross section of a 
permanent hotbed. The end 
boards should be carefully 
marked at the proper slant and 
ripped exactly on the line in 
order that the sash may fit 
tightly at the ends. Manure 
from the horse stable should be 
tramped in the pit to a depth 
of about 2^" to 26". This 
manure should contain plenty of straw or leaves to prevent it 
from packing soggy. About 4" to 6" of soil, composed of 2 
parts of loam and 1 part of well-rotted manure, should be placed 
upon the manure. The sash should then be placed on the frame 
and the hotbed allowed to heat for about three days. When 
the temperature of the soil falls to about 80° F., the bed is ready 
for planting. 

Before planting, the soil should be firmly packed. The 
seed should be planted in rows from 3" to 6" apart, according 
to the size of the plants. After planting the soil should be 
firmed with a smooth board. If the plants are too thick in the 
rows, they should be thinned in order to prevent them from 
becoming spindling. 

A curtain of heavy muslin, a piece of old carpet or a board 
cover should be provided to cover the hotbed in cold weather. 
The seed should be watered often enough to keep it from 
becoming dry but not too often because too much water will 
exclude the air from the roots of the young plants. 

Proper ventilation and plenty of light are necessary to 
produce strong, hardy plants. The sash should be raised dur- 
ing the day according to the temperature of the outside air 
and closed at night. A hotbed should always be watered in 
the morning to enable the plants to become dry before the 
bed is closed at night. When the weather is warm enough, 



162 



SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 



the sash may be entirely removed and the plants allowed to 
harden to meet outside conditions. 

Concrete walls will last longer than board walls. See 
page 197 for the description of a concrete hotbed. 

A temporary hotbed may be constructed on the surface 
of the ground by placing a pile of manure about 9' square and 

about 18" deep on top of the 
ground and thoroughly tramp- 
ing it. A frame of the dimen- 
sions shown in Fig. 3 may then 
be placed on top of the pile of 
manure and additional manure 
banked around the frame to a 
depth of about 6". A la3'er of 
soil 4" to 6" deep should then 
be placed on the manure in the 
frame and the bed be allowed 
to heat as described in the discussion on the permanent hot- 
bed. 

The long growing season of some vegetables makes it 
necessary to start them in hotbeds. This is especially true 
of plants such as tomatoes, eggplants, peppers and other 
vegetables of the same type when raised in the extreme north- 
ern parts of the United States. The following table shows the 
proper time to start and transplant different vegetables which 
are started in hotbeds : 




= \\\\ =^ikmporary fiotbed^/. 



Ill 



COMMON VEGETABLES STARTED IN HOTBEDS. 



Vegetable 


Depth 


Seeds for 


Start in 


Transplant in 


Ready for use 


to plant 


row of 100 ft. 


hotbed 


garden 


after planting 


Early Cabbage 


1/2 in. 


% oz. 


February 


Mar. or Apr. 


90 to 130 days 


Cauliflower 


1/2 in. 


1/4 oz. 


Feb. or Mar. 


Apr. to June 


100 to 130 days 


Celery 


Vs in. 


V4 oz. 


Mar. or Apr. 


May and .lune 


120 to 150 days 


Eggplant 


1/2 in. 


% oz. 


March 


Apr. and May 


100 to 140 days 


Early Muskmelon 


1 in. 


1/2 oz. 


March 


Apr. to June 


120 to 150 days 


Pepper 


Vz in. 


% oz. 


March 


Mav and June 


100 to 140 days 


Sweet Potato 


3 in. 


75 slips 


April 


May and June 


140 to 160 days 


Tomato 


Vz in. 


i/i oz. 


Feb. and Mar. 


May and June 


100 to 140 days 



Plants in a hotbed as well as those in a house tray may 
be hardened off by transplanting in a cold frame which may be 
made in the same way as the board frame for a temporary 
hotbed. No manure is used for heating purposes in a cold 
frame. A cold frame will be much more efficient if placed on 
the south side of a building where it will be protected. Plants 
should not be placed in cold frames in very cold weather be- 
cause they are apt to be frozen at night. 



GARDENING 



163 




Transplanting: The sharpened stick which is used in 
transplanting is called a dibble. A convenient dibble may be 
made from the handle of an old shovel as shown in Fig. 4. 
If an old shovel handle is not available, a dibble may be made 
from a broom stick by sharpening one end of a piece about 
10'' long and padding the other end to prevent bruises or 
blisters on the hand when forcing the dibble into compact ground 
for setting a large number of 
plants. 

How to use a dibble cor- 
rectly: A hole should be made 
with the dibble deep enough to 
set the plant and the roots of 
the plant placed in this hole. 
With the dibble held in a slant- 
ing position as shown in Fig. 4, 
the dirt should be pressed firmly 
about the roots of the plant. If 
the soil is dry, water should be 
poured in the hole left by the last stroke of the dibble. After 
the water is allowed to settle, loose dirt should be scraped into 
the hole to cover up the wet dirt. This allows the water to 
get to the roots of the plant more easily than when it is poured 
on top of the ground around the plant after it has been leveled 
off. It also leaves the wet dirt covered by loose dirt, which 
prevents a rapid evaporation of the water from the surface of 
the ground and thus holds it for use by the plant. 

The seeds of most vegetables are sown by hand in the 
garden and not transplanted. A drill is generally used when 
a large area is to be sown. Fig. 5 shows an excellent type 
of hand drill. Note the roller behind the seed flute to pack 
the ground over the seed. Note also the lever which controls 
the seed opening, making it possible to stop the flow of seed 
when turning at the ends of the rows. 

The drill is much more economical in the use of seed ; 
it distributes the seed more evenly than is usually done by 
hand and is much quicker than hand sowing. The drill shown 
in Fig. 5 has a marker which can be adjusted for rows from 
6" to 20" apart. 

In transplanting plants from the hotbed and in sowing 
seeds by hand, it is desirable to have a marker to lay out the 
rows. A marker enables one to lay olT rows rapidly and also 
to space them accurately. Cultivation with a one-horse garden 
cultivator is much easier when the rows are accurately spaced. 



164 



SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 



Garden Drill 



■Seed valve rod 

3eed box 




Fig. 5 



/^arAer Seedf/ut? 



Garden Marhzr 




RF=^P^HFF^ 



Fig. 6 



Fig. 6 shows a simple home-made garden marker. This 
marker is made by cutting j/^" gains for fitting on from three 
to seven markers. The centers of the gains are spaced 12", 
18", 24" and 36'' from the center of the frame. The markers 
are attached to the frame by carriage bolts, one in each marker. 
This enables one to easily change the markers to give the various 
spaces between the rows needed for the different kinds of vege- 
tables. 

The illustration shows the marker set to mark rows 12" 
apart. This is a suitable distance for such small vegetables as 
radishes, beets, onions and lettuce if they are cultivated with 
a hand plow or hoe. This marker will also make five marks 
18" apart and three marks either 24" or 36" apart. A stretched 
cord should be used to get the first rows straight. The in- 
side runner may then be made to trace the last mark to keep 
the rest of the rows straight. If the pupil wishes to have rows 
at other spaces than those indicated, he may cut his gains at 
other intervals. 

A roller is a valuable tool for any gardener to possess. Some 
seeds as celery, turnips and onions are planted very shallow and 
will not germinate well if the top soil is too loose and dries out. 

A good hand roller may be made by cutting a wood cyl- 
inder 15" to 18" long from a log 12" or 13" in diameter. 
This roller will weigh about 50 or 60 pounds and will be 
heavy enough for light rolling over newly planted seeds. 
Two handles may be fastened to the log with machine bolts 
as shown in Fig. 7. These bolts are preferable to carriage 
bolts because they are round up to the head and thus make 
a better axle. Holes should be bored in the center of each 
end slightly smaller than the bolts that are to be used for the 
axles. Hard wood strips will wear longer for the handles than 
soft wood. The bolts used as axles should be kept oiled or 
greased the same as any other axle. 



GARDENING 



165 



Garden Roller 




Cucumber Screen 



bcreen wire 




Fig. 8 



A r'x2" strip with the edges rounded with a spoke shave 
will serve for a handle. One or two other boards should be 
nailed to the handles for bracing as shown in the illustration. 
This roller will be found about the right weight for rolling 
the tops of sweet potato ridges when they have not had time 
to settle before the plants are ready to transplant. 

A heavier roller for lawns or tennis courts may be made 
of concrete. See page 206 of the section on concrete for the 
details of making a concrete roller. 

Cucumbers and melons are often destroyed when they are 
young and tender by a striped beetle. Where only a few vines 
are raised for home use, they may be protected by a frame 
covered by a screen wire or mosquito netting. These frames 
should be made about 11" to 13" square and 4" to 5" high. 
The screen should be stretched over the frame and nailed 
on with wood strips to make sure that there are no openings 
through which the small beetles may crawl. Boxes or waste 
lumber should be used in making such projects in keeping 
down expense. These cover frames should be removed when 
the plants are sufficiently hardened to prevent destruction by 
the beetle and stored for use another year. With proper care 
these frames should last several seasons. 

A garden, when used continuously, should be fertilized 
yearly. In using garden manure, the ground should be cov- 
ered with a thin coat which should be plowed or spaded under 
to allow it to thoroughly rot. In applying commercial fertilizers, 
the directions coming with these fertilizers should be strictly 
followed, as too much of the commercial fertilizer will "fire" 
the plants. 

Proper cultivation is essential to success in gardening. A 
plow, rake or hoe should be run over the surface every few 
days to keep down the weeds and form a dust mulch on the 
surface. This mulch conserves the moisture in the ground for 



166 



SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 



the use of the plants by preventing too rapid evaporation of 
the ground water. 

Most vegetables are subject to attacks from insects and 
disease. The ravages from these two sources may be prevented 
by spraying with suitable materials from time to time during 
the season. 

The blights vyhich afTect such plants as the potato may 
be prevented by spraying with Bordeau mixture, which consists 
of 3 ounces of copper sulphate and 3 ounces of lump or hydrated 
lime to 2yz gallons of water. 

Sucking insects may be destroyed by using a nicotine sul- 
phate solution which consists of Yz ounce of nicotine sulphate 
and Yz ounce of laundry soap to 2 gallons of water. 

The eating insects may be destroyed with a solution of lead 
arsenate, consisting of 1 ounce of powdered lead arsenate to 
6 quarts of water. This may be applied with a sprayer, a sprink- 
ler or an old whisk broom. This solution should not be used 
on cabbage which is heading as it is poisonous. 

The bushel crate is a very convenient means of gathering 
and delivering such bulky crops as potatoes, onions and toma- 
toes. A heaped bushel must be used in measuring such vege- 
tables. A heaped bushel contains 2,747.07 cubic inches. To 
hold a heaped bushel, a rectangular crate should be made 
Il>4"xl4"xl7". 

Construction: The side slats are ^"xl^"xl8". They 
are nailed together with cleats ^" x 1^^" x 123^" with spaces 
of 1" between. This leaves \" at the base for nailing on 
the bottom. The cleats are nailed flush with the ends of the 
side slats. The end slats are 3^" x 1>^" x 14" and are nailed 
to cleats 3^"x2"xl2^" with spaces of V between the slats. 

The end cleats project \" be- 



Bushel Crate 



17 i-ortg)^ . ^. 
^ /.? Wide Unhide aimen^/om 

^ Il2 Deep] 




strips 



Fig. 9 



yond the ends of the end slats 
so that they will allow for the 
side slats and be nailed flush 
with the side cleats. The bot- 
tom is made of 4 slats 3^" x 3" x 
18", nailed with intervening 
spaces of 1", to two cleats 3^"x 
l>^"xl5". The bottom cleats 
are nailed to the corner cleats 
and are reinforced at these cor- 
ners with strips of tin. These strips of tin -may be cut from 
any old bucket or can. Thin box lumber may be used in con- 
structing such crates and thus make the expense much less 
than when new lumber is used. 



167 



CANNING VEGETABLES 

There are three kinds of germs which cause decay in 
fruits and vegetables, i. e., yeast, molds and bacteria. These 
germs must be destroyed in a can of fruit or vegetables if 
we wish to preserve it. Yeast and mold germs are easily de- 
stroyed at the temperature of boiling water. Bacteria, then, 
are mainly responsible for the spoiling of canned vegetables. 
Certain kinds of bacteria can live and cause vegetables to spoil 
even when air is not present. 

A bacteria germ reproduces itself by dividing into two 
parts or by means of spores which correspond to the seeds 
of flowering plants. Spores will retain their vitality for a con- 
siderable time at the temperature of boiling water and will 
germinate after the water has cooled. In order to kill the 
spores in a can of vegetables, it is necessary to boil it for about 
three to five hours at one time or to boil it for an hour upon 
two or three successive days. The boiling on the second day 
kills the germs which have come from the spores which were 
not killed in the first boiling. They are then killed before 
they have had time to produce other spores. This process of 
killing the germs and spores in vegetables and fruits is called 
sterilization. 

The sterilization of the jars of vegetables may be accom- 
plished by placing the jars on a frame in a common wash boiler 
with a tight cover. About 3" or 4" of water should then be 
placed in the boiler. The steam from this water will sterilize 
the jars of vegetables. The lids to the jars must be left slightly 
loose to allow any steam, which forms in the jars, to escape. 
Otherwise the jars may crack due to the excessive pres- 
sure inside. After the boiling 
is completed, the jars should 
be quickly removed and the 
lids tightened to prevent any air 
from entering because the out- 
side air will bring fresh spores 
with it. A frame with wire 
handles on it as shown in Fig. 
10 will make it easy to remove 
the hot jars from the boiler. 
This frame consists of thin slats, 
nailed to cleats which are placed about 6" from the ends. 
It is made the same shape as the boiler and slightly smaller to 
allow it to be easily raised and lowered. A strip of galvanized 
iron or hardware mesh should be tacked around the outside of 



Boiler Frame 




blati 



168 SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 

the frame lo hold the jars in position when the frame is lifted 
from the boiler. 

How to can by the cold-pack method : After the vegetables 
are cleaned and prepared for canning, they should be scalded 
or blanched in steam or boiling water from 1 to 15 minutes, 
according to the kind of vegetable. This process enables the 
skins of such vegetables as tomatoes and beets to be removed 
and also removes certain objectionable acids. Blanching may 
be very conveniently, done by placing the vegetables in a cheese- 
cloth bag and lowering them in boiling water or by placing them 
in a colander and putting them over boiling water in a covered 
vessel. The steam process is best when the time of blanching 
is very long because the volatile oils and other substances re- 
main in the vegetables much better than they do when they are 
blanched in boiling water. The following table shows the times 
for blanching and for sterilization of certain typical vegetables: 

Vegetable Time for Blanching Time for Sterilizing 

Tomatoes 1 to 2 min. 18 to 22 min. 

Pumpkin 5 to 10 min. 90 to 120 " 

Sweet Corn 5 to 10 " 120 to 180 " 

Beans 3 min. 90 to 120 " 

Peas 3 to 5 " 120 to 180 " 

*Cauliflower 3 min. 40 to 60 " 

Beets 5 " 80 to 90 " 

Sweet Potatoes 3 to 5 min. 80 to 90 " 

Greens 15 min. 90 to 120 " 

The same time limits may be used for other vegetables of 
a similar nature. For example, squash requires the same time 
limits as pumpkins. 

When the vegetables are removed from the blanching pro- 
cess, they should be dipped into cold water and immediately 
removed and drained. They are then ready to be packed into 
jars, covered with boiling water, flavored with a teaspoonful 
of salt and sterilized as described on the preceding page. 

Instead of canning, most vegetables may be blanched as 
described above and dried in the sun or by artificial heat. For 
this purpose a rectangular tray with screen wire on the bottom 
may be constructed. This tray should be set on bricks placed 
in pans of water to keep out creeping insects if used for sun 
drying. In artificial drying it may be placed in the oven with 
the door slightly ajar or suspended above the top of the stove. 

* Cauliflower should be soaked in brine for an hour before blanching 
to remove any insects that may be hiding in it. 



169 
SEED CORN 

The selection, curing and testing of seed corn presents an 
interesting and profitable project for any pupil who has access 
to a field containing a good variety of corn. This work will 
be more interesting if the pupil carries on this work in con- 
nection with a corn raising project. There are always farmers 
in every community who prefer to buy their seed corn rather 
than take the trouble of selecting and caring for it, providing 
they are sure they will get seed of the proper quality. 

Experiments have shown that well preserved seed corn 
will increase the yield per acre. In one experiment four bushels 
of ears were divided into two equal parts. The part that was 
well preserved gave an increase of 12% on poor soil and 27% 
on good soil over the yield from the part that was placed in 
the barn in the same way that the corn was put in a crib. 

Seed corn should be selected before the first hard freeze. 
Well-ripened ears should be relected from stalks that have 
produced the most corn in competition with other stalks. Large 
ears from single stalks with an unusual amount of space should 
not be selected. After gathering, the ears should be imme- 
diately placed in position for crying. This may be done by 
tying heavy twine around several ears and hanging them from 
some support on the ceiling. The rack shown in Fig. 11 
will also furnish an excellent place to dry the corn. This rack 
holds 400 ears or about 4 bushels of seed corn. Such a rack 
also has an added advantage of being convenient when the ears 
are being tested. It may be divided into 4 sections, each con- 
taining 100 ears, the number above each car corresponding to a 
number of a square in the seed testing box. This frame should 
be placed in a shed or room in which a good circulation of air 
is maintained. The corn must be thoroughly dried before it 
freezes or the germ will be frozen and injured. 

The main standards of the frame are made of 2 x 2's, T 9" 
long. The slats for holding the ears are Ji" square and 5' 6" 
long. These slats are spaced 3" apart. Wires are stapled to 
the frame at intervals of 3", thus dividing the frame into 400 
equal compartments. 

The base boards may be made any convenient length, the 
longer boards making the frame less apt to be pushed over. 
If several of these frames are made, they may be connected 
across the top and thus make a very stable set of frames. The 
upright posts should be spaced about 3" apart. This will 
allow ears 8" long to be supported on the slats which are 
7" apart (inside measurements). It will not be necessary 
to wire the back of the frame because the front wires will 



17C 


i 














SCHOOL-HOME 


PROJECTS 






Fig. 11 
5ezd Corn Drier 


1 






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[-7- 




'~p 




m .. 








f— 




r- 




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y 









SEED CORN 



171 



separate the ears. The open structure of this frame allows air 
currents to freely circulate about the ears and ib thus espe- 
cially favorable for equal drying of all parts of the ears. 

In the spring the ears should be tested before planting. 
This testing may be carried on in two ways. The seeds may 
be planted in a box of sand and kept in a warm place. This 
method has the advantage of being more nearly like natural 
conditions. The second method is to germinate the seeds on 
a cloth divided into squares corresponding to the number of 
ears tested, above and below which is kept damp sawdust. 
The seed testing tray shown in Fig. 12 may be used for 
either method. This tray may be divided into 100 two-inch 
squares. 

In securing the ten kernels which should be selected from 
each ear, one should begin about 1" from the base and go 
around the ear in a spiral fashion to about 1" from the 
tip as shown in Fig. 13. Only the ears from which all the 
seeds sprouted should be kept. The kernels about an inch from 
the base and an inch from the tip of the ear should be dis- 
carded in shelling for seed. In testing seed corn, one should 
be sure the conditions under which the seed were tested were 
favorable for germination or ears may be thrown away which 
would germinate under favorable conditions. Care must be 
taken that the temperature does not fall below 65° F. during 
the test. Any pupil, working up a reputation for first class 
seed corn will soon have all the business that he can handle. 

In years which are patricularly unfavorable for the produc- 
tion of seed corn, ears which have a lower test may be sorted 
into piles showing diiiferent per cents of germination and the 
piles testing 80% or more used in case of a seed corn shortage. 
Only in extreme cases should corn testing less than 80% be 
used. 




Fig. 13 

Manner of BemovinQ Herneb forlesting 




f^erneh removed"' 



172 SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 

RAISING POULTRY 

Everywhere, except in the thickly settled parts of a city, 
one can find space enough to carry on a poultry project because 
a minimum of only 35 square feet of yard space is required for 
each fowl. More than this minimum amount is desirable, how- 
ever. 

A poultry project may consist of two lines of work: (1) 
keeping hens for egg production and (2) raising poultry for 
market. The breed of poultry to be selected depends upon the 
aim of the project. 

The three main breeds of chickens are: (1) the egg breeds, 
such as the Leghorns and the Minorcas; (2) the meat breeds, 
among which are the Brahma?, the Cochins and the Langshans; 
and (3) the general purpose breeds, the most common of which 
are the Plymouth Rocks, the Wyandottes and the Rhode Island 
Reds. 

KEEPING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 

The first essential in keeping hens for egg production is a 
good house. The building of a chicken house is an excellent 
constructive project for any boy or for a group project for a 
manual training class. The chicken house should be protected 
by other buildings or placed on a slope facing the south. At 
least 5 square feet of floor space should be allowed for each 
fowl in order to provide sufficient scratching space. 

The standard lengths of lumber must be considered in 
planning a house so that there will be the least possible waste 
in sawing the boards. Lumber usually comes in 10', 12', 14' and 
16' lengths. A chicken house 12'xl0' will supply the right 
amount of floor space for 24 hens and also leave very little 
waste in cutting the boards. 

The floor of a chicken house should be made of boards or 
concrete because dirt floors can not be kept in a sanitary con- 
dition without a great deal of work. A good concrete floor is 
very durable and can be easily cleaned. Refer to the section 
on concrete to find how to mix concrete for such a floor. 

The house should be as low as can be conveniently used 
because a low house is more easily warmed than a high one. 
The chicken house shown in Fig. 14 is 12' long and KY wide. 
It is 8^' high at the front and 4i<' high at the rear. This gives 
a slope for the roof of 4' in 12' or a pitch of 3^. To wear well 
a roof should not have a pitch less than ^ because the water 
would not run off well and it would decay more quickly. 

The advantages of a single sloped roof are: (1) it is easiest 



RAISING POULTRY 



173 




to build and (2) it allows a high window in the front so that the 
sunlight may reach the rear edge of the floor. 

Construction of the frame: The frame of a house of this 
size should be constructed of 2x4's. The front is put together 
as shown in Fig. 15. The five studding should be sawed 8' 2" 
long. The sill at the bottom and the plate at the top are 10' 
long. The easiest construction is to spike the sill and plate to 
the ends of the studding before the front of the frame is raised 
into place. The studding should be spaced according to the 
locations of the door and window. Cross pieces should be cut 
to fit the spaces as indicated and spiked to the studding. 

The lower corners may be fastened in a variety of ways. 
The detail of the front corner, Fig. 16, shows a method of 
cutting the corner post and the two sills to make a strong lap 
joint. Instead of this construction the bottom may be spiked 
to the corner post and the side sill toe-nailed to the corner post. 
A brace across the corner on the inside may be used in either 
construction to strengthen the frame. 

The back part of the frame consists of a rectangular frame 
10' long and 4^/4' high. This requires the studding to be 4' 2" 
long. 

The side should be constructed as shown in Fig. 17. The 
side sills are set edgewise to correspond to the rafters. The 
corners should be squared and braced before an attempt is made 
to cut the rafters. 

How long will the rafters be? The length may be found 
by using a framing square. By placing one end of the rule on 
the 4" mark and swinging the rule until it touches the 12" 
mark on the other arm, the number of inches on the rule be- 
tween these points will represent the number of feet in the 
rafter from plate to plate for the slope of 4' in 12'. 

The rafters should be cut long enough to allow for a pro- 
jection of 6" at the front and rear. The detail of the fastening 
of the rafter to the plate is shown in Fig. 18. The rafters may 



174 



SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 




be held in position (edgewise) at one end of the plate and 
marked for the cuts to be made as shown in the illustration. 
Six rafters, spaced approximately 22" apart will be sufficient to 
hold the roof of this house. 

The roof: The type of covering used for the roof will 
determine the method of putting on the sheathing (that layer 
of boards between the rafters and the covering). If the roof 
is to be shingled, the sheathing may be spaced about 2" apart 
because a solid base is not necessary. On the other hand 
a solid base is preferable if prepared composition roofing is used. 

Shingles come in bunches of 250 each. When they are laid 
with A^A" exposed to the weather, a thousand shingles will 
cover about 125 square feet. Determining the number of shingles 
needed for covering any house makes a very practical problem. 

Shingling: The lower course of shingles may De laid straight 
by stretching a chalk line across the rear about \" from the 
lower edge of the sheathing. This lower course should be laid 
double. The main point in laying shingles is to have no joint 
between the shingles in the upper course nearer than ^" to 
a joint in the lower course. After this double course of shingles 
has been laid, a point should be set off AlA" from the bottom 
on each side, a chalk line, which has been well chalked, stretched 
taut, and then snapped. Another line should then be chalked 
4^" above this line. By this means two courses of shingles 
can be laid at once. 

Two 3d nails should be put in each shingle, placing them at 
least 10" from the base of the shingle. This is necessary 
to keep the nails from being exposed by a crack, in which case 
they will rust out and cause a leak in the roof. About 4 pounds 
of 3d nails will be needed to shingle this roof. 

By using 14' boards for the sheathing, the pieces sawed ofT 
can be used for the droppings board which will be described 



RAISING POULTRY 



175 




later. This will cause less waste and be much quicker than try- 
ing to use the pieces in sheathing the roof. 

If prepared roofing, such as tarred paper, is used, the sheath- 
ing is laid solid. Prepared roofing is computed by the square. 
The term square as used in this connection means 100 square 
feet. How many squares of roofing are needed to cover the 
chicken house? 

Siding: The siding may be put on in several ways. Since 
the house must be built as warm as possible, cracks must be 
avoided. This may be done in several ways: (1) by using com- 
mon boards and covering the cracks with battens ; (2) by using 
tongue and grooved lumber; or (3) by using cheap common 
boards and covering the sides as well as the roof with tarred 
paper. A good problem in this connection is to find the rela- 
tive costs of the three methods. 

In sawing the boards for the sides, the bevel should be set 
at the angle which the roof makes with the corner post and 
the boards marked off at the proper lengths with this bevel. 
The piece which is sawed from a 14' board for the long board at 
the front of the side may be used in cutting the short board at the 
rear. The piece from the second board at the side may be used 
for the second board at the rear, etc. 

The window: The window area in a poultry house should 
not be too large because too much glass makes a house too cold 
at night in extremely cold weather. One square foot of glass 
should be provided for every 16 to 18 square feet of floor area. 
Eight glass 10" x 14" set in a frame 24" x 5' 2" will provide the 
right amount of window area for this house. This window 
should be swung from the top so that it may be used to provide 
extra ventilation in moderate weather by swinging it out at the 
b( ttom and bracing it with a prop. 

Instead of making a window, an old frame of a suitable size 
may often be purchased at a small expense from some one in the 
neighborhood. In that case it is a good plan to buy the window 



176 



SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 



Ventilator i 




fig 20 



^nside View of Roosts Firt 2 1 




/Vests Suspended 
under droppinpi, 
p/at/orm 



frame before putting up the frame of the poultry house so that 
the studding can be spaced to fit the size of the window frame. 
The door should be made of the same material as the siding. 
The illustration on page 91 shows how to brace a door properly. 
The door should be swung as shown in Fig. 14 so that it may 
be opened and fastened back in the daytime. An inner frame 
door, something like a screen door, covered with heavy muslin 
may be used in cold weather to furnish additional light and 
ventilation. 

Poultry need fresh air as well as other animals. A ventila- 
tor 24" X 6" should be provided above the window. Slats sloping 
downward as in Fig. 20 may be nailed in this ventilator to keep 
out rain. It should always be left open, even in the cold weather. 
In extremely cold weather a muslin or burlap cloth should be 
tacked over the inside of the ventilator to allow ventilation to 
go on and at the same time prevent draughts of cold air. 

By providing the exit, 10"xl2", with a door covered with 
wire netting and by an extra cloth in cold weather, it may also 
be used for ventilating purposes. 

A droppings platform should be provided under the roost 
to keep the floor in a more sanitary condition. This platform 
should be about three feet wide, made movable and suspended 
about 2' 10" from the floor. As stated on page 175, the scraps 
from the 14' sheathing may be used in constructing this plat- 
form. The roosts may be made of two 2 x 2's nine feet long, 
placed 15" apart. They may be mounted on boards or posts so 
that they are at least 6" from the droppings platform. These 
roosts should be on the same level for otherwise the hens will 
overcrowd the higher roost because of the tendency of chickens 
to roost as high as possible. 

The rear roost should be at least 10" from the rear 
wall. The top edges of the 2 x 2's used for the perches should 
be slightly rounded to make them more comfortable. In very 



RAISING POULTRY 



177 



Front (f Nest Case 



Fig. 22 



Back Of Nest Case 



Drop door 





cold weather a burlap or heavy muslin curtain may be lowered 
in front of the droppings platform to make it warmer at night 
and thus prevent the combs of the hens from freezing. Wire 
netting may also be tacked to the lower edges of the rafters 
and the 4" space above it may be filled with straw. The 
same thing may be done on the sides of the house if it is not 
lined with paper. The straw will not only make the house 
warmer but also absorb any surplus moisture. 

The nests should be in a dark place so that the hens will 
not eat the eggs. A good place to put them is beneath the drop- 
pings board with the openings toward the wall. This method of 
suspension also leaves the floor space clear. Fig. 22 shows 
a convenient row of 5 nests for suspension under the droppings 
board. Partitions 6" high should be placed about 12" apart 
to divide the box into individual nests. A strip 5" high will 
be sufficient for the front of the nests. The board at the back 
of the nests should be hinged so that the eggs may be taken 
from the nests without going under the droppings board. The 
top of this board may be fastened with wooden buttons or small 
hooks. 

FEEDING HENS FOR EGG PRODUCTION 

A balanced ration is necessary for high egg production. 
The principal kinds of feed are: (1) scratch feed, consisting 
of cracked corn, wheat, oats and other small seeds; (2) a dry 
or wet mash, containing beef scrap, ground alfalfa or some other 
nitrogenous materials; (3) oyster shell; (4) grit; (5) charcoal 
and (6) green feed. Reference should be made to a good agri- 
culture text or government bulletin to find the purpose and 
proper proportions of these various kinds of feed. 

Suitable feed boxes and troughs are needed for these feeds. 
Scratch feed is thrown over the straw litter which should be 
kept on the floor in order to give the hens plenty of exercise 
as they scratch for this feed. 



178 



SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 




Most of the feed boxes should be nailed to the wall at such 
a height that the hens can conveniently reach them but still 
high enough to prevent them from being scratched full of straw. 
The grit box, Fig. 23, should be divided into three com- 
partments, one containing grit, one oyster shell and the other 
charcoal. These three elements are very essential, the oyster 
shell to furnish mineral matter for the egg shell ; grit to enable 
the gizzard to grind the food more easily and charcoal to absorb 
any objectionable gases arising from digestion. 

A dry mash is usually kept constantly before the hens. This 
mash contains beef scrap or other nitrogenous material needed 
for making the whites of the eggs and thus balance the scratch 
feed, which is richer in the elements used in making the yolks 
of the eggs. The California dry mash hopper, Fig. 24, is 
an excellent hopper for feeding a dry mash. 

A more simple trough for feeding table scraps or a wet mash 
is shown in Fig. 25. If a thin narrow strip is tacked on the 
top of the inside of each side, it will help to prevent the hens 
from scraping the food with their beaks over the sides of the 
trough into the litter. The small slats nailed from the top strip 
to the sides are to keep the hens from getting into the trough 
with their feet. These slats may be made out of laths. 

The water pan should be placed on a platform, made of 
slats about 15" or 18" above the floor. This platform should 
be large enough to allow the hens to stand on it while drinking. 
A slat cover should be made for this pan so that the hens can 
not step in the water and render it unsanitary for drinking 
purposes. Dirty water often causes diseases to be spread from 
one infected fowl through an entire flock. 

One of the most important elements in winter feeding is 
green food. This may be provided by storing cabbage and 
other green vegetables for winter feeding. One of the best 
winter feeds is sprouted oats. Several trays of convenient 



RAISING POULTRY 



179 




dimensions should be provided for sprouting the oats, the num- 
ber depending upon the size of the flock. The oats should first 
be soaked 24 hours and then spread out in a tray in a layer 
about ^" deep. They should be sprinkled about twice a 
day to keep them moist. If kept in a warm place they should 
be ready for use in from 10 days to two weeks. Other trays 
should be started at regular intervals so that one will be ready 
as soon as another is used. An open rack to hold these trays 
may easily be devised and made out of scrap lumber or crating. 
If one is equipped with all the conveniences for properly 
caring for poultry, the management of a flock of hens becomes 
much more pleasurable and if scientific methods of feeding are 
used, it results in greater profits for the manager. A flock of 
12 Leghorn hens, when fed in a scientific manner, yielded a 
profit of over $40 in a year. 

RAISING POULTRY FOR MARKET 

Many appliances are desirable for raising chickens for mar- 
ket on a large scale which are too expensive for a small project. 
Raising chickens by the natural method is the safest for the 
beginner and also the more economical. 

April and May are the best months for hatching, because 
the chicks can then be placed in coops out of doors. Green 
food and insects are plentiful and the expense of raising them 
is thus lowered. 

It is best to have a single nest for a sitting hen. The hen 
should be moved after dark to this new nest for she will prob- 
ably be less disturbed at that time. A square covered box 
15" X 15" X 15" can easily be made from a packing box. Bar- 
rels, placed on their sides, may also be used for this purpose. 

A plentiful supply of whole grain such as corn, wheat and 
oats should be supplied the sitting hen. Too much meat food 
would tend to make her quit sitting and begin laying. 



180 



SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 



fgg Candkr 



Fig.27 




M 5haped Coop 




Fig. Zb 



The number of eggs that should be supplied to a sitting 
hen varies from 11 to 15, depending upon the size of the hen 
and the state of the weather when she begins sitting. 

After the hen has been sitting 6 or 7 days, the eggs should 
be candled. A candler similar to the one shown in Fig. 27 
will be found convenient. Either a lamp, a lantern or an elec- 
tric light may be used to supply the inside light. If a lamp or 
lantern is used an opening should be made in the top above the 
chimney. A few air holes should also be bored in the bottom. 
The opening for testing the eggs should be cut at the level of 
the light. A piece of black felt, placed around the opening will 
lessen the danger of cracking the shell and will add much to 
the efficiency of the tester. The eggs that are not fertile will 
appear clear while the fertile eggs will have a spider-like mass 
in them. Should a large number of eggs not be fertile under 
two hens set at the same time, the fe'rtile eggs may all be placed 
under one hen and a new supply placed under the other hen. 

After the chicks are hatched they should be placed in a 
warm box or basket until all the chicks are out and are strong 
enough to be placed with the hen in an individual coop. The 
easiest type of coop to construct is made by nailing boards to- 
gether in a V shape. Two boards 12" wide and 30" long 
for each side will make a fair sized coop. The ends should 
be sawed slightly beveled so that the top edges will fit together 
when the bottom is spread to V. The crack between the 
side boards should be covered with a thin board or a lath to 
make it water proof. The back should be boarded up solid. 
The front end should be composed partlv of slats to let in the 
light and give a place for the chicks to leave the coop without 
the hen being able to leave. These slats should be about 3" 
apart. A cqvered runway about 3' wide and 8' long will ofifer 
plenty of space for the chicks when they are small and be a 



RAISING POULTRY 



181 



Box Coop 




Fig. 29 



Feeding Crate 

_5 g T Poultry nettinq 




Fig. 30 



protection against crows and hawks. This runway should be 
made on a movable frame so that it can occasionally be moved 
to a new grass plot. 

A box typed coop gives a hen a better chance to move 
about. This coop may be made any convenient size. For the 
coop as shown in Fig. 29, an 8" board sawed diagonally 
will furnish the two slanting boards for the sides. The top 
boards should project about 3" at the front and back. A 
loose floor should be constructed for either type of coop so 
that the coops may be lifted off and the floor easily cleaned. 
After the chicks are large enough, the hen should be released 
from the coop and allowed to take the chicks over a wide range. 

When the chicks are large enough for market, they should 
be confined in a crate and fattened for about two weeks. By 
confining the birds in a crate, they will not waste any energy 
in useless exercise. The chicks are fed in a trough placed in 
front of the crate (see Fig. 30). The slats on the front should 
be spaced 2" apart so that they will have plenty of room to 
reach through for food. A crate of this size is large enough 
to fatten 12 chicks. The chicks should be weighed before 
placing in the crate and when sold, to determine the amount 
of profit resulting from this method of feeding. It would make 
an interesting experiment to compare the gain by this method 
with that of another lot that was fattened while running over 
a large lot but fed exactly the same amount and kind of feed. 

In conducting either a poultry project for tgg production 
or raising poultry for market, an accurate account of receipts 
and expenditures should be kept so that the profit of the ex- 
periment may be computed. Inventories should be taken at the 
beginning and at the end of the year and be included in the 
account. 



182 



RAISING HOGS 

Raising hogs is one of the most profitable industries in the 
great corn producing states. When corn is plentiful, the farmer 
can feed his corn to hogs and market it in the form of meat 
instead of grain. To make the greatest profits, however, proper 
methods of raising, fattening and selling must be followed. 

The first important consideration in beginning a hog raising 
project is to select the breed. There are two general breeds of 
hogs: (1) the bacon type, represented by the Large Yorkshire 
and the Tamworth and (2) the lard type including the Berk- 
shires, the Poland-Chinas, the Duroc-Jerseys and the Chester 
Whites. Of these breeds, the Tamworth is considered the ideal 
bacon type and the Poland-China is the deal of the lard pro- 
ducing type. The Poland-China is not as prolific, however, as 
some of the other representatives of the lard type such as the 
Duroc-Jerseys. One should select sows from one of the best 
breeds in his neighborhood and endeavor to get pure bred stock. 
If the herd is composed of pure bred stock, one may often sell 
the young sows for more than would be secured if they were 
kept and fattened. 

Pigs which are ready for market in October usually bring 
higher prices than those which are marketed a month or two 
months later. It is therefore to the hog raiser's interest to get 
his pigs ready for the early prices. In order to have the pigs 
ready for this fall demand, the sows must begin farrowing about 
March 1. The farmer also has less work at that time and can 
take better care of these early pigs than those coming two 
months later. The early pigs are also large enough to begin 
eating grass when it is ready in the spring. A large growth 
is thus obtained from pasture, which has been demonstrated 
to be the most economical feed in raising hogs. 

Proper housing facilities must be provided for early pigs 
or large losses will occur. The little pig has very little covering 




floQ ffou&e Frame 



Fig.32 



Front 




a^ 




f;) 
/■"* 






— ji 



RAISING HOGS 



183 



and for this reason must be kept in a warm place. The individual 
hog cot is probably the best type of hog house for the small 
producer. The advantages of the portable individual cot are : 
(1) it is simple to build and inexpensive; (2) it is more sanitary 
for it may easily be moved from one location to another, thus 
avoiding muddy feeding lots ; (3) it is more easily ventilated 
than a large hog house ; (4) it lessens the dangers of contagious 
diseases ; and (5) a renter may build and move such houses with 
him to another farm. The disadvantages of the individual cot 
are that a group of them are not so easily heated by artificial 
means as one large house and it is more trouble to feed a large 
herd in individual cots than in a large hog house. 

The individual hog house shown in Fig. 31 is designed to 
be warm and also furnish an abundance of light and ventilation. 
The foundation for the floor of this house may be made by 
spiking three 2 x 6's, 6' 10" long, flatwise to five 2x4's, 6' 8" 
long. The 2 x 4's should be spaced 18" apart. The three 2 x 6's 
are designed to serve as runners when the hog house is moved. 
For this purpose the front ends should be rounded like sled 
runners and wires attached to them to serve as a means of 
attaching doubletrees when moving. The two end runners 
should be allowed to project 2" beyond the ends of the joists. 

The four corner posts should then be spiked to the ends 
of the front and rear joists. These posts may be further 
strengthened by spiking the 2" projections of the runners 
to the bottoms of the posts. A 2 x 4, fitting between the bases 
of the corner posts should then be nailed to the ends of the 
joists. The remainder of the frame may easily be constructed 
by referring to the drawings of the front, back and sides of the 
frame. 

Either shiplap or common 12" barn siding, battened at 
the cracks is suitable for the siding. The inside of the house 
should be lined with shiplap or some other cheap material it 



lioQ Houi&e. Framz 



Fig. 35 

Rack 



I > < fl^Cf^ 



Fia.54 




Fig.35 




.t 




.♦ 

6 — S 

i 








t- 7 


0-^ ^ 



184 SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 

the house is to be used in cold weather. A good quality of 
flooring- should be used to make the floor both warm and dur- 
able. Straw or dirt may be banked around the outside of the 
house temporarily to prevent the wind from blowing under the 
floor in extremely cold weather. Plenty of straw should also bo 
provided for bedding. 

A 2 x4 support for the roof should be nailed between the 
middle points of the two outside rafters. Either common barn 
siding with the cracks tightly covered with battening and 
painted, or shiplap covered with tarred paper, will furnish a 
moderate priced and fairly satisfactory roof for such a house. 

Chicken wire may be nailed to the under side of the rafters 
of the hog house and the 4" space above it and the roof filled 
in with straw. This will make the house much warmer, which 
is a very desirable feature for early farrowing. 

If 8" boards are attached to the walls about 8" above the 
floor, they will provide a protection for the little pigs by pre- 
venting the mother from crushing them against the wall when 
she lies down. The illustration in Fig. 36 shows a method of 
attaching such a fender to the wall. The same purpose is served 
by a 2 X 4 scantling fastened so that the outer edge is 8" from 
both the wall and the floor. 

Two windows each about 24"x2'4" will provide plenty 
of light and sunshine for a house of this size. Little pigs 
must have plenty of sunshine. The angle of the sun's rays 
with the earth depends upon the time of the year and also upon 
the location of a place. The tops of the windows should be 
placed at such a height that the noon sun will reach the rear 
edge of the house. The following table shows the heights nec- 
essary for the sun to strike the rear part of this house at various 
altitudes on March 1 and April 1 : 



1x4- 



Pig Tender 




rig. 36 2"X6' 



]lentilator for Window 



5ajA X fiinoe 




C/otfi covered 



roitening 



Fig. 37 



RAISING HOGS 



185 



Heights of windows for various latitudes for a hog house 
6' in depth. 

Location March 1 April 1 

38° N. Latitude 5' 10" 9' 0" 

40° " " 5' 5" 8' 5" 

42" " " S' 1" 7' 9" 

440 " " 4' 9^' 7' 2,'r 



46' 



6' 9" 



From the preceding table it will be seen that the windows 
will need to be located near the top of the front of the hog 
house. The above table will be valuable in locating the win- 
dows accurately for a certain locality when a definite time for 
farrowing has been fixed. 

By swinging the windows on hinges at the top, suitable pro- 
vision can be made for ventilation. An excellent device may be 
used on the windows in cold weather. A frame the same size 
as the window may be covered with cloth and fastened to the 
window sash as shown in Fig. 37. The braces at AA' may 
be made of either wood or iron. A wooden button on the out- 
side will hold the window shut and the cloth frame up out of 
the way. A fastening peg on the inside will hold the window 
sash open and the cloth frame in place as shown in the illus- 
tration. This provides for ventilation and prevents any undue 
draft on the pigs. If the window is low enough for the hogs 
to reach it, the cloth frame must be protected by a wire screen 
on the inside. 

The door is about 24" wide and 34" high. It is made 
by sawing the necessary number of boards in the front to give 
the required width. A brace must be nailed to the boards on 
the inside above the door and two cross cleats nailed to the 
boards forming the door. The door may then be swung as 
shown in the illustration on page 182, attaching the hinges on 
the outside opposite the cleats. 




186 



SCHOOL-HOME PROJECTS 



Profitable hog raising requires not only proper housing 
facilities but also economical methods of feeding. Many experi- 
ments have shown that corn alone is not an economical feed 
for growing hogs. Feeds containing protein, to form large 
frames, should be fed in connection with corn. A good legumi- 
nous pasture such as clover or alfalfa, together with corn pro- 
vide a good growing ration. In the absence of pasture such 
feeds as skim milk, wheat shorts, bran or tankage should be 
used in connection with corn. Most of these feeds are fed in 
the form of slops. This requires some form of trough. The 
first requirement of a good trough is that it be constructed so 
that it may be readily cleaned. The simplest and one of the most 
substantial troughs is the V shaped type shown in Fig. 38. 

The wide board in these troughs should be the thickness of 
the lumber wider than the narrow one. The drawing shows all 
of the details needed in its construction. The boards should 
be planed so that they fit perfectly at the joint and securely 
nailed. A triangular strip should be nailed in the bottom to 
enable the hogs to reach the bottom with greater ease. No 
cracks should be left to get filled with slop which will become 
sour and foul. The length of the trough should depend upon 
the number of hogs which will use it and whether it is to be 
used from one side or two. A trough should be placed upon a 
platform or on a high, dry location so that the pigs will not 
get their feet muddy. Cleanliness is the first essential in secur- 
ing good results in feeding slops. 

Concrete troughs are growing in popularity because they 
can be easily cleaned. For the method of making a concrete 
trough, refer to page 198 in the section on concrete. 

Pigs, when large enough, should be shut in a small pen and 
fattened for about a month to prepare them for market. Corn 
or some other fat-producing food should be made the basis of 
their daily ration. This pen may be one composed of movable 




RAISING HOGS 



187 



sections so that it may be easily changed to a new location or 
it may be a permanent pen with a concrete floor, which can be 
kept in a sanitary condition. 

If the shipping point is only a short distance, the hogs may 
be driven early in the morning while it is cool. If the station 
is a considerable distance away, the hogs will have to be hauled 
in wagons. This will require a loading chute and a hog rack. 

The loading chute, Fig. 39, is made of 2x4 standards and 
supports, 1x6 siding, 2x12 flooring and 1x4 braces. The 
working drawing will enable any woodworker to construct such 
a chute. Cleats, l"xl^2"x3'' should be securely nailed or 
screwed to the floor at intervals of 8" to 10" to prevent the hogs 
from slipping. 

The hog rack shown in Fig. 40 is planned to fit the com- 
bination box described on page 149. The stakes on the sides 
should be spaced to fit the iron holders on the wagon bed. The 
sides are composed of seven % x 4's, spaced 2" apart or six if 
spaced 3" apart. The ends fit in slots formed by nailing two 
l"xl^" strips an inch apart at each end of the sides. These 
ends are securely held in place by two ^" rods in each end of 
the rack. This rack is superior in hot weather to one set on top 
of a regular wagon box on account of the better opportunity for 
the circulation of the air due to the base of this rack being only 
6" high instead of 12". 

If one does not have the combination box, this rack may be 
made to fit a common wagon box by replacing the stakes by 
two cleats 1" x 3" x 4', nailed on opposite sides of the boards and 
using fewer boards for each side and the front end. 

Wet sand, hay or straw, placed in the bottom of the hog 
rack will tend to keep the hogs cool in warm weather while 
they are being hauled to market. The driver should also prevent 
the hogs from piling together in one end of the rack because 
they are often smothered in that way. 



Fig. 



¥ 



40 

- jTHott fbr rod 



Side 

- 10 10' - 



/ioQ Rack 



End 



-^ 



S6<w«rf to fit 



S 



Z ipoce - 





— »♦* — 


' 
















' 1 i II 














i-.i ;.;i 




3-4" 


«, 



188 



CONCRETE 

Concrete is an artificial stone made by mixing together sand 
and stone with cement and water in certain specified proportions. 
Concrete is not a new invention because it was very extensively 
used as far back as Roman times. Many of the concrete struc- 
tures built by the Romans are still standing — silent testimonials 
of the lasting qualities of concrete. It is only recently, how- 
ever, that the perfecting and cheapening of the process of making 
Portland Cement has resulted in a widespread use of concrete 
in this country. 

Portland cement^ is made by mixing limestone rock with a 
certain proportion" of a material of clayey composition such as 
clay, shale, cement rock, or blast furnace slag. The rock and 
other raw materials are first mined, then dried, ground to a 
coarse powder and stored in large storage bins. These materials 
are then proportioned by weight and thoroughly mixed. This 
mixture is then ground to a fine powder and fed into a revolving 
kiln where it is subjected to a temperature varying from 2500° 
F. to 3000° F. This extremely high temperature fuses or melts 
these materials into clinkers, varying in size from ^4" to about 
IK" i"^ diameter. Gypsum is then added in the proportion of 2 
pounds to 100 pounds of clinkers. The purpose of the gypsum 
is to retard the setting time of the cement. This mixture is 
ground into the fine Portland cement powder which is stored 
in bins until ready for packing. 

This cement is packed in three forms: wooden barrels, con- 
taining 380 pounds; cloth bags of 95 pounds and paper bags of 
the same size. The cloth bags are the most popular on account 
of being more easily handled than the barrels and not so easily 
torn as the paper bags. The bag also offers a convenient measur- 
ing unit for small "batches" of concrete. 

The purpose of using the stone and sand with the cement 
is to cheapen the cost of the concrete. The large spaces or voids 
between the stones or gravel are filled with sand and the spaces 
between the particles of sand are filled with cement. There 
should be no voids in an ideal concrete mixture. Fig. 1 illus- 
trates the proper proportions for a 1:2:4 mixture, consisting of 
1 part of cement to 2 parts of sand to 4 parts of stone or gravel. 



' Portland cement was discovered by Joseph Aspdin, of England, In 
1824. He named it "Portland" cement, because the mixture when hardened 
resembled a stone found on the island of Portland, south of England. 

^Standard Portland cement contains the following elements: silica 
20 to 24%; lime 60 to 65%; alumina 5 to 10%; iron oxide 2 to 5%; magnesia 
1 to 4%; and sulphur trioxide ^ to 1%%. 



MIXING CONCRETE 



189 



Proportion of a 1: 2.14 Mixture 




^;:'^;pvv^'-:::--VJ^V'r 




Sand 



^tone 



Concrete. 



Various mixtures of cement, sand and stone or gravel are 
made, depending upon the uses to wliich the concrete is to be 
put. A 1 :2 :4 mixture is used for walls of silos and other build- 
ings above the foundation. It is also used for reinforced floors, 
beams, columns and other structures subject to considerable 
vibration. A 1 :3 :5 mixture is not so strong but is usually used 
for foundations and the lower course of a two-course sidewalk 
or floor. A 1 :2:3 mixture is considered best for troughs, tanks, 
fence posts, roofs and one-course floors, walks or pavements. 

If a very smooth surface is desired for ornamental work, the 
stone or gravel is not used in the mixture. A mixture of 1 part 
cement to 1 to 1^^ parts of sand is used for the top course of a 
two-course floor. A 1 :2 mixture is sufficiently smooth for the sur- 
face of walks or pavements. This mixture is also used for the 
facing surface of building blocks, while a less expensive mixture 
is used for the remaining portions of the blocks. 

After the kind of mixture has been selected, the materials 
must be accurately measured and properly mixed. For the 1 :2 :4 
mixture, two measuring boxes are needed. The sizes of these 
boxes will depend upon the number of bags of cement which 
are used in one batch. For a two-bag batch the sand measuring 
box should be 2' square and 113^" high. The corresponding 
box for stone or gravel should be 4' long, 2' wide and 11^" high. 
These measuring boxes are constructed without tops or bottoms. 
The usual form for the construction of these boxes is shown 
in Fig. 2. Instead of this construction, a rectangular box of 
the proper dimensions may be made and strips about 2" wide 
nailed on the sides for handles. 

How to mix concrete : A good platform or mixing box 
must be provided for mixing concrete by hand. A platform 9' 
wide and ICK long is large enough for a mixing board for 
small batches of concrete. The boards used in this platform 
should be tongued and grooved. They should also be surfaced 
on one side so that a smooth surface will be provided for shovel- 



190 



CONCRETE 



Fig. Z Measut/nQ Box 






1 



^or cernent 



Fig. 3 bpadipQ Concrete 




Spaded 



/Vor ipadfd 



ing. One inch boards will be sufficiently strong for this platform 
if they are properly braced and it will not be so heavy when it is 
necessary for the platform to be moved. These boards with 
tight joints should be nailed to five 2x4 cleats so that no cement 
grout will be able to run through the cracks. In order to pre- 
vent the concrete from running off the platform, a 2x2 strip 
should be tightly nailed around the edges of the platform. 

The sand measuring box should first be placed near one side 
on the platform and filled with sand. After it is measured, the 
sand should be spread out in a layer 3" or 4" deep. The cement 
should then be spread as evenly as possible over the entire 
surface of the sand. The pile of sand and cement is next 
mixed by turning it over on the other side of the platform. The 
sand and cement should not be dumped off the shovel but shaken 
off the end and sides so that they are thoroughly mixed as they 
fall. A second shoveling is usually needed to have the sand and 
cement properly mixed. The mixture should then be spread out 
and the stone or gravel measuring box placed on top and filled 
with stone or gravel. After the box is removed, the stone should 
be scattered out evenly over the pile. 

The materials are now ready for wetting. About 10 gallons 
of water should be used for a two-bag batch of 1 :2:4 mixture for 
a medium wet mixture. About three-fourths of this amount of 
water should first be dashed over the stone, spreading it evenly 
over the pile. The mixture should next be turned by dumping 
a shovel full and dragging the shovel back o\er the stone. This 
mixes the mortar with the wet stones. The remainder of the 
water should be used to wet any dry spots that appear. About 
three shovelings are required for this stage of the mixing. The 
concrete is then ready for placing in the forms. Since concrete 
"sets" in from twenty minutes to half an hour after being mixed, 
it should be immediately placed in the forms which have been 
previously prepared for it 



CONSISTENCY OF CONCRETE 191 

The mixing platform should be thoroughly cleaned by 
scrubbing it with a broom and water after the day's work. If 
this is not done, small particles of stone will be cemented to the 
boards and this will make shoveling difficult the next time the 
platform is used. 

Power mixing machines are used when large quantities of 
concrete are used as in pavements or extensive foundations. The 
measuring fcr these machines is done by dumping wheelbarrow 
loads of sand and gravel on the feeding chute and pouring on the 
proper number of bags of cement. 

Consistency of Concrete: There are three types of con- 
sistency in concrete mixtures: (1) a very wet mixture; (2) a 
medium mixture and (3) a dry mixture. A very wet mixture is 
mushy and will run out of a wheelbarrow or shovel. This type 
of mixture is used in thin walls or reinforced work. A medium 
mixture is of a quaky consistency and is used for foundations, 
floors, walks, fenceposts, etc, A dry mixture resembles damp 
earth and requires thorough tamping until the water appears on 
the surface. This type of mixture is used in foundations where 
it is desirable that the concrete set as quickly as possible. 

Spading concrete, as the name suggests, consists of running 
a spade or thin board down the side of the form to force back 
the coarse pieces of stone and gravel and allow the finer parts 
of the concrete to flow to the outside and thus give a smooth 
finish to the outside of the structure. Fig. 3. Should spading 
not result in a smooth enough finish, a surface coat of pure 
cement mortar may be used to accomplish this result. If the 
pure cement mortar is not used, there is danger of the outside 
coat peeling ofif. 

Forms for concrete projects: Forms for concrete work 
should be made of "green" lumber. Dry lumber will tend to 
absorb moisture from the concrete unless it is thoroughly soaked 
in water before it is used in the forms. It is very important that 
the forms be very accurately constructed and that no cracks or 
knot holes are present for the cement grout to run out. For this 
reason a good grade of tongued and grooved lumber is favored 
upon fine work. In laying foundations, cheap lumber is usually 
used for the forms and then used on other parts of the building 
where it is covered by other finished lumber. Clay may be used 
to stop any cracks or knot holes. If the opening is large a board 
should be nailed over the clay on the outside of the form to 
prevent the pressure of the concrete from pushing the clay 
through the opening. In order to insure an easy separation of 
the form from the concrete, the inside of the form should be 
painted with some mixture that will insure this separation. A 



192 CONCRETE 

mixture of boiled linseed oil and kerosene is used by many work- 
ers for this purpose. It is not necessary to recoat the form each 
time it is used. Any concrete which sticks to the mold should 
be scraped off before it is used again. 

Two kinds of forms are used in making concrete products, 
one in which the concrete is molded in a solid mass in a one- 
piece mold and a second type in which a second form or core is 
used to make a hollow or opening through the concrete object 
that is being molded in an outer form. Clay, plaster casts, and 
lumber are used to make these inner forms. 

Removal of forms: The forms should not be removed 

from the concrete until it has thoroughly set. This usually re- 
quires from 24 to 48 hours. Where it is convenient, it is well to 
leave the forms for several days longer because they form a 
protection against a too rapid evaporation of the water from the 
surface. If it is necessary to remove the forms immediately after 
the concrete has set, it should be sprinkled twice a day and cov- 
ered by a piece of old carpet, canvas or burlap to prevent the 
outside from drying out faster than the inside. Many excellent 
pieces of concrete work have been marred by cracks that have 
been caused by the lack of proper wetting of the surface during 
the curing period. 

A concrete sidewalk should be covered with a sheet of canvas 
for a few days and kept wet in order to prevent it from cracking. 
If a canvas covering is not available, a layer of damp earth may 
be used to cover it after the surface has hardened. 

Reinforcement: Concrete will resist great compression but 
it does not have very much power to resist a bending force. For 
this reason concrete posts, suspended floors and other concrete 
structures subject to pulls and vibrations must be reinforced with 
steel or iron rods which are strong in tensile strength. 

Class Projects: Many of the projects described on pages 

193 to 208 require the same kind of concrete mixture. If all the 
forms are ready, a large batch of concrete can be mixed at one 
time and all of the forms filled from this one batch. The concrete 
can be more thoroughly mixed and will result in less waste if 
mixed in large batches rather than each pupil mixing a small 
amount for his particular project. 

Community Projects: Sidewalks, floors and steps may be 
made for patrons of the school for merely the cost of the materials 
because this is an excellent opportunity to get a practical training 
in that phase of concrete work. A movable mixing platform 
should be made for this kind of work. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE 



193 




DOOR WEIGHT 

Many glasses in doors are broken by the wind slamming 
the doors shut. A door weight will prevent them from being 
blown shut when they are left open for ventilation. This is one 
of the simplest projects that may be selected for work in con- 
crete. The form for the door weight, shown in Fig. 4, consists 
of a rectangular box which is 2" deep, 4" wide and 8" long 
(inside measurements). A 1 :2 mixture of cement and sand 
should be used for this project. Before filling the form with 
concrete, the inside should be painted with the mixture of lin- 
seed oil and kerosene to prevent the concrete from sticking to 
the form. 

By inserting two wires bent in the shape shown in the illus- 
tration, a handle of leather or heavy cloth may be put on the 
weight. This makes it much easier to handle. These wires 
should be accurately spaced from the ends and sides and im- 
bedded at least }i" in the concrete at the time it is placed in 
the form. The sides should be carefully spaded. 



BASEBALL HOME-PLATE 
Every school should be equipped with a home-plate for the 
baseball diamond. The shape and dimensions of a home-plate 
are shown in Fig. 5. The base of the form should be laid out 
and squared up to the exact dimensions. Side strips may then 
be nailed to the sides of the base, forming a box 2" deep. 
The two mitred joints should be cut in the mitre box at an 
angle of 45°. A 1 :2 mixture of cement and sand should be used 
and the top troweled very smooth so that the dust may be easily 
brushed ofif during the progress of a game. The top edges 
should be slightly rounded with an edger to eliminate sharp 
edges. This plate should be sunk nearly level with the ground 
so that the edges will not catch the feet of a runner when he 
slides for the homeplate. 



194 



CONCRETE 



Foot 5craper 




Section A -A 



wsmm. 



FOOT SCRAPER 

A concrete base for a foot scraper, Fig. 6, also offers a 
practical project for the beginner in concrete construction. The 
form for this base is a water-tight box with any convenient 
dimensions. A box with inside measurements of 2" x 10" x 12" 
makes a well proportioned base for a scraper. The lumber 
should be put together with screws so that it may be easily 
taken apart in removing the form. A triangular strip of wood 
Yz" wide should be nailed in the lower edges of the mold in 
order to bevel the lower edges of the block. 

The iron part of the scraper is made of a strip of 34" x 1" 
iron 10" long, welded to two upright pieces of the same material 
7" in length. If a forge is not available this part of the scraper 
can be made at a blacksmith shop. See page 225 for directions 
for making the iron portion of the scraper. Note that an inch 
at the base of each upright piece is turned at right angles to 
hold the iron more firmly in the concrete. 

Before placing the concrete in the form, the inside of the 
form should be painted as described in the descriution of the 
door weight. The iron scraper should be braced in the position 
in which it is to remain. This may be done by nailing strips 
across the top of the form, one on each side of the scraper. 

The form should be filled with a 1 :3 mixture of cement and 
sand. A trowel should be used to smooth the top of the block 
and either an edger or a trowel used to bevel the upper edges to 
correspond to the bevel made by the triangular wooden strips 
that were placed in the edges of the bottom of the form. The 
form may be removed in two days but the base should be wet 
twice a day for 4 to 8 days to properly cure the outside. 



Pupils should be encouraged to vary the designs of projects in this 
section and also to design other simple concrete projects not described in 
this book. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE 



195 



orm for Concrete Fosts 

lA 




%7 



FENCE POSTS 

Concrete fence posts, if properly made will last much longer 
than wooden posts and cost but little more. Concrete posts are 
made in a variety of shapes. One of the most popular types is a 
post 3" square at the top, 5" square at the base and 7' long. This 
length allows the post to be set 2^' in the ground. 

Fig. 7 shows a horizontal form for making 3 fence posts, 
each being 33^" square at the top and 5^" square at the base. 
These dimensions are used to give a post of greater strength than 
the one described in the preceding paragraph. On the other 
hand, a barrel of concrete will only make 15 of these posts while 
it will make about 19 of the 3" size. The form may be made 
with the smaller dimensions instead of the ones given if the 
worker considers the smaller posts strong enough to meet his 
needs. 

A platform 2'x8' of matched lumber nailed to 2x4s should 
be made. Four pieces of 2" material 7' 1^" long are tapered 
from 3^" at one end to 5^" at the other for the partitions and 
sides of the form. The small end piece is 2" x 3^" x 22''. Grooves 
3^" apart and }i of an inch deep are cut across the side of this 
end piece to exactly fit the ends of the tapering sides. A similar 
strip 2"x5^"x29" is grooved at intervals of 5M" to fit the 
other ends of the sides and partitions. Cleats are tacked at the 
ends and sides to prevent spreading when the forms are filled. 
Hooks are used on the ends to hold the form together. Small 
triangular strips 4' long are usually tacked in the upper part 
of the form to bevel the edges of the post which will be above 
the ground. 

A medium wet mixture of 1 :2 :3 concrete should be used for 



196 . CONCRETE 

fence posts. Since a fence post is subjected to considerable side 
pull, it must be reinforced. Four heavy %" wires or %" rods, 
bent at the ends and placed about 1" from each corner, are 
usually used for this purpose. After about an inch of the mix- 
ture has been placed in a form, two wires should be placed on 
the concrete, each being about an inch from the edge and the 
ends extending to within 1^^" from the top and the bottom. 
The mold is then filled to within an inch of the top of the mold 
and the other two wires similarly placed. The mold is next 
filled and leveled even with the top of the form. The sides should 
be spaded to produce a smooth surface on the post. No gravel 
or crushed rock larger than about ^" should be used on ac- 
count of the nearness of the reinforcing rods to the surface. 
Triangular strips the same size as those used in the bottom of 
the frame should be pressed into the corners of the top edges of 
the mold so that the post is uniformly beveled on all sides. 

The tapering form of this post will make it possible to fasten 
the fence to it by drawing a wire taut around a wire of the fence 
and around the post. Twisted wires or staples bent at the ends 
may be inserted in the post for fasteners but these usually break 
or rust ofif after considerable use. Some manufacturers make 
holes through the post by using greased rods when the posts are 
cast. These holes tend to weaken the post and are not always in 
the proper position for fastening the wires. 

Another type of post is one 4" square at the top and 
4"x6" at the base. One advantage of this type is that one can 
mold as many in a single form as he wishes because they are all 
4" wide and taper on only two sides. Not more than three 
or four of the double tapered posts shown in figure 7 can be 
molded in one form because the ends tend to become very 
angling with the sides. 

Corner posts should be about 12" square and be placed from 
3' to 3>4' in the ground. They should be built where they are 
to be used on account of their great weight. A perpendicular 
form should be used for these posts. 

The posts should be removed from the form in about 24 
hours and set in a vertical position so that they will dry uni- 
formly on all sides. They should also be wet twice a day so 
that they will cure properly. Many of the failures in making 
concrete posts have been due to carelessness in proper curing 
of the posts. 

Steel forms, which may be used in batteries, varying from 
four to ten may also be purchased. It is not profitable to buy 
these forms, however, unless a large number of posts is made. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE 



197 



Concrete Hotbed 

Fig. 6 



8 X /£ 5trip 




V CONCRETE HOTBED 

Any farmer or gardener, who is permanently located can 
well afford to put up a concrete hotbed. It will last much longer 
than one with board walls and be much cheaper in the end. The 
fermenting manure does not affect the concrete but is very de- 
structive to wood. A hotbed should be located, if possible, on 
the south side of a building where the air will be warmest for 
ventilating in the day time. 

In making a permanent hotbed, the size of the sash must 
first be found. Standard hotbed sash are 3' wide and 6' long. If 
one wishes to make a hotbed to be covered with three standard 
sash, the excavation should be made about 6' 9" wide and 9' 10" 
long. This allows for walls 6" thick. Care must be taken to get 
the sides of the excavation perpendicular and the corners square. 

The forms for the walls are easily made. Some matched 
boards should be nailed to three or four stakes the height of the 
wall. These walls should be set so that the boards are 6" 
from the dirt wall. These inner forms should be braced as 
shown in Fig. 8. The outside forms may be braced as shown 
in the illustration, with the inside face of the boards even with 
the dirt wall. In order to leave a notch for the sash, a strip about 
an inch wide should be tacked to the top of the inside frame as 
shown in the illustration. 

The ends are made in a similar way, except that the top 
boards must be slanted. A strip should be nailed to the top of 
the slanting sides to furnish a depression in the ends for the 
edges of the two outside frames. A 1 :3 :5 mixture of concrete 
will be sufificiently strong for this project and will be less ex- 
pensive than a richer mixture. 



198 CONCRETE 



Fig. 9 



Hog Trough Form 




-^- i2't 



HOG TROUGH 

In making the hog trough, shown in Fig. 9, there are two 
parts to be constructed for the forrti. The outer box is made 
with a depth of 9", a width of 15" and a length of 6' (inside 
measurements). An inside box must then be made for the 
core. This box is made 4" wide at the bottom and 11" wide at 
the top ; 5' 4" long at the bottom and 5' 8" long at the top. The 
boards must be beveled to the proper angles to make water tight 
joints. This core form should then be turned upside down in the 
outer form and screwed to the bottom, leaving a space 2" around 
the lower edges. Small triangular strips may be tacked in the 
corners of the outer box to bevel off the sharp edges of the outer 
walls. 

After the form is completed, the inside surfaces should be 
painted with the mixture of linseed oil and kerosene. The form 
is then ready for filling. A 1 :2:3 mixture, medium wet, and well 
spaded should be used for this trough. Every trough should be 
reinforced. Heavy wire or small rods may be used for this pur- 
pose. These wires or rods should be bent so that they extend 
around the core about an inch from the outside form. About 1" 
of concrete should be placed in the form and one of the rein- 
forcing wires or rods laid on top. Al)out 3" more of concrete 
and another reinforcing wire, and a third layer of concrete and 
the third reinforcement should be placed. An additional wire 
should be run through the center of the concrete above the core. 
The form should then be filled, tamped until water shows on the 
surface and leveled oft" with a straight edge. After about 48 
hours the form should be carefully removed and the inside 
painted with a pure cement mortar to leave a smooth surface. 
The trough should be kept wet until it is cured. 

If clay is available, the inside core of the mold may be shaped 
out of clay instead of using a board core. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE 



199 




CONCRETE WATERING TROUGH 

The forms for making a concrete watering trough are shown 
in Fig. 10. These forms should be made of matched lumber to 
make them water tight. The outside form is in the shape of a 
rectangular box with inside measurements of 4' x 9'. The boards 
are held in place by being nailed to stakes which have been 
driven into the ground. The end boards are also nailed to the 
sides to make the outer form more secure, This form may be 
made more rigid by bracing the stakes as shown in the illustra- 
tion. The inner form which molds the depression in the trough 
is 3'x8' at the top and 2'x7' at the bottom. There is less 
danger of the trough being split by water freezing in it, if it is 
built in this shape. The inner form is held in place by being 
nailed to 2x4 supports resting on the top of the outer form. 

The walls of this trough may l)e reinforced with wire mesh. 
A form should be made out of this mesh with dimensions 6" 
larger than those of the inner form. The outer form should be 
filled to a depth of about 12" and the reinforcement placed in 
position. The inner form may then be suspended in position and 
the rest of the form filled. A 1 :2 :4 medium wet mixture will be 
found suitable for making this trough. The sides of the concrete 
should be well spaded to make the surface smooth in appearance. 
The inside of the tank should be plastered with a coat of pure 
cement to make the concrete water proof. 

The same plan may be modified to make a tank of any 
dimensions. If the builder wishes to save concrete, a form 2' 
wide, 7' long and 9" deep may be made of old boards, placed in 
the bottom of the outer form and filled with cinders or gravel. 

The forms may be removed in two days but the concrete 
should be kept wet for two weeks and covered with a canvas to 
keep the outside surfaces from drying too quickly and cracking. 



200 



CONCRETE 



Flower Box 




CONCRETE FLOWER BOX 

The form for this concrete flower box consists of two boxes 
with sloping sides. Consequently the bevel must be used on all 
of the edges of the bottom boards to get accurate joints. The 
T bevel should be set to give a slope of 1^" in 8". 

The top of the bottom board of the outer form is 8" wide 
and 2>7" long. The sides and ends of the outer form should be 
6^" high and be screwed to the base board so they may be 
easily removed in taking down the form. Strips IK" high 
should be nailed to the tops of the sides and ends. They are 
set out }i" from the inner edges to make the projecting rim 
around the top of the box. The top of the outer form should 
measure 11" wide and 3' 4" long. Designs may be made in the 
sides and ends of the box by properly spacing and tacking 54" 
or y%" boards to the insides of the outer forms. The edges of 
these boards should be beveled because it not only gives a neater 
design but enables the outer form to be removed with greater 
ease. The design in the illustration is merely suggestive. 

The inside form is a box with outside measurements as fol- 
lows : Top— 8" X ?>7" ; bottom— 5K^" x 34)/." ; height— 6i4"- This 
form is suspended by two strips tacked to it and the top of the 
outer form. 

The flower box should be made with a wet mixture of 1 :2 
cement and clean sand. Wire mesh may be used for reinforce- 
ment for this box by bending it into the same shape as the inner 
form but with dimension l)^" greater, except the height which 
should be the same. 

The forms should be carefully removed after two days and 
the box placed under water for several days to cure. If a smooth 
finish is desired, the surface may be coated with pure cement and 
rubbed down. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE 



201 



Fig. 12 



Lawn Pedesta/s 




LAWN PEDESTAL 

The lawn pedestals shown in Fig. 12 may each be molded 
in one form or molded in three separate sections and put to- 
gether with mortar. 

The form for the base is a frame 15" square and 4" high. 
The shaft of the pedestal is made in a form 13" square and 22" 
high. This shaft may be molded hollow by inserting an inner 
form about 6" square and 22" high in the center of the shaft 
form. The design on the sides is made by thin boards, having 
beveled edges, and which are tacked on each of the inner 
faces of the form. The form for the top has sloping sides. It is 
3" high, 17" square at the top and X^Yz" square at the lower 
edge on the straight sided pedestal and 11" square at the top 
and 8" square at the lower edge on the sloping sided pedestal. 

A 1 :2 mixture should be used in casting all of the parts of 
the pedestal. If the three parts are cast separately, they should 
be put together with mortar made by mixing equal parts of 
cement and sand. The pedestal should either be immersed in 
water or kept wet and covered with canvas for about two weeks 
to allow it to cure properly. 

The designs on the edges of the top are made with beveled 
strips tacked to the insides of the top form. The shaft may 
also be made with slanting instead of perpendicular sides. By 
changing the height of the pedestal and increasing the depth of 
the top, a bird bath may be constructed on the same general 
plan with the addition of a form for making the hollow for the 
bath. The designing of a flower urn or small square flower box 
to be placed on this pedestal offers another interesting and 
closely related project. Fig. 13 shows a design of an urn. 

Be sure to have the forms thoroughly soaked in water before 
using. Dry lumber will absorb moisture and cause the project 
to dry too quickly and crack. 



202 



CONCRETE 



Fig. 15 

Urn form 

■ Clay C/ay 



Flower Urn 





3ase form 



h >z" M I I 



FLOWER URN 

The urn shown in Fig. 13 should be constructed in two parts. 
To make the bowl, a circle with a radius of 8^" should be laid 
off on a board platform. On this circle a clay core 4^/2" deep 
should be built up and rounded to make it the same shape as 
the hollow of the bowl. A concave tin template should be cut 
the shape of the outside curve of the bowl and used to give the 
proper curve to the outside of this core. 

For the outer part of the form, a board frame 20" square 
and 6" deep (inside measurements) should be made. This frame 
should be covered with ^" lumber. The diagonals of the in- 
side of the box should be drawn and with the point of in- 
tersection as a center, a circle with a radius of 2>^" laid 
out. This circle should be carefully sawed out with a com- 
pass saw and the sides and corners of the box filled with clay. 
If a few nails are driven in the sides of the box before putting 
in the clay, they will help hold the clay in place. The convex 
template (left by cutting out the concave one) may be used to 
shape the clay which forms the outside of the mold. This outer 
part of the mold should then be inverted over the core, with ex- 
actly 1^" left between the inner and outer parts of this form. 

The circular form for the base, 12" in diameter, may be 
made of cardboard or tin. The lower edge of the mold should 
be filled with clay and shaped with a template cut to the proper 
curve. A wood circle 5" in diameter and J^" thick should be 
placed exactly in the center of the base to make the hollow for 
the base of the bowl. 

A 1 :2 wet mixture should be used for the urn. While the 
concrete is still workable, the outer form should be removed 
and the surfaces smoothed with a template. The two parts of 
the urn may then be cemented together. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE 



203 



Fig. 14 




Lawn 5 eat 

4' 6" 



□ 



Q 



;: [, 



LAWN SEAT 

The form for the slab of the lawn seat, Fig. 14, is merely a 
box 2%" deep, 16" wide and 4' 6" long. Small triangular strips 
should be nailed in the four lower corners to bevel the edges of 
the slab. Wire mesh should be placed about ^" from the bottom 
of the slab to reinforce it. Two dowels should be set in the 
bottom of the form 5" from each side and 8^" from each end, 
projecting 2" into the form. These dowels will leave holes in 
which iron rods may be inserted to help brace the top to the legs. 

The form for the end is much more complex. It consists of 
a box 5" wide and 1534" long. The side of this form is 11" 
wide at the top and 14" wide at the bottom. The shape of 
the end is obtained by nailing boards with beveled edges on 
the sides and ends of the form. The design is made by 
wooden figures nailed to a thin board which is tacked on 
the face of one of the inserted boards. The inner surface of 
each leg is plain. The wooden figures must be mounted back- 
wards on the form because they print the same as type. Bolts, 
the same size as the dowels in the top, should be placed in the 
top of each leg and spaced to fit the dowel holes in the top slab. 

A 1 :2 mixture of concrete should be used. A wet mixture 
should be used for the legs but a much drier mixture may be 
used for the top and thoroughly tamped. After a day or two the 
top should be smoothed by rubbing it with a brick and fine sand. 
The seat should be cemented to the legs where it is to be used 
on account of the weight of the whole seat. Care should be 
taken in curing this seat as mentioned in the discussions of the 
previous projects. 

If the legs are not removed before they dry out, they are apt 
to crack. The forms for the legs should be removed after about 
24 hours and the legs immersed in a tank of water to cure. 



204 



CONCRETE 



Fig. 15 



Concrete 6/de /Vo/A 



Straff ee^e 
Surface /oyer- 




5taAe 



\c 






CONCRETE SIDE WALK 

The excavation for a concrete side walk should be made at 
least 6" wider than the walk is to be and about 9" deep. The 
lower 6" should be filled with cinders, gravel or crushed stone. 
This will provide a drain under the walk and prevent an up- 
heaval of the walk due to water collecting under the walk and 
freezing. This sub-base of cinders or stone should be thor- 
oughly tamped with a heavy iron tamper. On top of this sub- 
base 2x4s should be placed for the sides of the form for the 
walk. A stretched cord and a board gauge the width of the walk 
should be used to accurately locate these sides. They should be 
securely fastened in place by stakes driven on the outside at 
intervals of 2' or 3'. 

A medium wet mixture should then be placed in the form for 
a base and leveled off with a base gauge (see figure 16). A 1 :3 :5 
mixture should be used for this lower course. The lower course 
must be tamped until water appears on the surface. A coat of 
pure cement mortar should then be spread in a thin layer over 
the top of this lower course in order to make a strong bond be- 
tween the upper and lower courses. If this is not done, the top 
coat may peel off. The remainder of the form should be filled 
with a 1 :2 mixture of cement and sand for the top course and this 
course leveled off with a straight edge. 

The top of the walk may be smoothed with either a metal or 
wooden trowel. A wooden trowel leaves a rough surface which 
prevents the walk from becoming so slippery in rainy weather, 
while a metal trowel leaves a smoother finish but one which is 
apt to become slippery. 

A jointer should be run across the walk at right angles to the 



CONCRETE SIDEWALK 



205 



Fig. 16 

Metal trowel. 



5/de VJalk Tools 

" Tamper 



G" 




3a se gauge 



Jointer 




IdQ^e- 



^Lfe^ 5trai^t edge.- 



sides at regular intervals varying from about 2A" in narrow walks 
to about 5' in wide walks. This can be accurately done by 
laying a board with a straight edge across the walk at right 
angles with the edge and running the jointer along the edge of 
the board. These grooves divide the walk into sections, any one 
of which may be easily removed and replaced if it cracks or is 
damaged in any way. The walk should be finished by running 
an edger along the edges to prevent them from being so easily 
chipped. 

A concrete walk should be wet every day for three or four 
days and covered with a canvas in order to prevent the top sur- 
face from drying too soon and cracking. If a strip of canvas is 
not available, a covering of wet sand or sawdust may be used 
after the concrete has thoroughly set. 

Floors: Concrete floors for porches, basements, barns and 
feed lots are coming rapidly into favor. They are more durable 
and the ease with which they may be cleaned renders them much 
more sanitary than board floors. Concrete floors should be con- 
structed in the same manner as a side walk. On account of the 
removal of the forms, concrete floors are laid in rows. After the 
first rows are hard, the forms are removed and the other rows 
filled in. An outside floor should be laid with a slight slope so 
that the water will drain olT in the winter. A trench about 18" 
deep should be dug around a hog feeding floor and a footing 
placed in it to prevent the hogs from undermining it with hog 
wallows. Light floors should be made 4" thick and floors which 
are subject to heavy loads should be made 6"thick. If a floor 
is large expansion joints should be provided to allow for the 
contraction and expansion due to the changes in temperature. 
These cracks may be filled with tar or asphalt. 



206 



CONCRETE 



^^^j^od.,p,pe fig. 17 



Brace 



-Pipe ar rod 



Support-. 1 , 
fiaWwire 



Parti cu 
away 




L. 



//o/e Sored 
tofit pipe 



LAWN ROLLER 

With the spring thaws come the rough lawns. The frost 
coming out of the ground causes the- sod to raise up in humps, 
which, if not rolled out while the lawn is soft, will become set 
and spoil the appearance of the lawn. Rollers used for smooth- 
ing lawns are made either of metal, wood or concrete. 

A concrete roller is easily made, is cheaper than one made 
of metal or wood and can be designed to suit one's individual 
needs. A roller about 18" in diameter and 24" long is of a 
convenient size for general purposes and can be easily operated 
by one person. A roller of this size will weigh from 525 to 600 
pounds. 

There are two methods of casting a lawn roller, one a form 
made of metal and wood as illustrated in Fig. \.7 and one where 
the roller is cast in a sewer pipe set small end down on a wooden 
platform. \\\ either case the pipe or rod which is to be the axle 
should be held in the exact center of the form while the roller is 
being made. Otherwise the roller will travel unevenly when put 
into use and be hard to operate. 

The wood and metal form is constructed as follows: On a 
square platform 6" or 8" larger than the diameter of the roller a 
circle with the same diameter as the roller should be drawn. 



LAWN ROLLER 207 

Six boards should be arranged over this circle as shown in B Fig. 
17 and nailed together. A circle of the same diameter should be 
drawn on this form and the inside of the form sawed out and 
smoothed to the circular lines. The curve in the base blocks can 
be determined in the same way. The upper form is held in . 
place by four 2x4s as shown in A Fig. 17. A hole just large 
enough to hold the axle rod or pipe is bored in the center of the 
platform and also through the brace bar nailed across the top of 
the form. A piece of sheet iron as wide as the length of the 
roller and as long as the circumference of the circle^ is cut and 
fitted into the form. This metal form is kept from bulging and 
separating at the joint by hoops of No. 16 wire, formed round it 
at intervals of 6". 

Painting the inside of the form with a mixture to prevent 
the concrete from sticking to the form should not be neglected. 
A 1:2:4 medium wet mixture should be used to make a roller. 
The sides should be carefully spaded to insure the outer surface 
of the roller being smooth. In case a tile form is used the con- 
crete should only come to the lower edge of the bell. The roller 
should be allowed to set for 10 or 12 days before removing the 
form. If a tile form is used it will be necessary to break the 
tile in pieces with a heavy hammer and cold chisel, consequently 
a defective tile should be used if it is possible to secure one 
that will answer the purposes. 

The handle can be made of wood and metal, as shown in 
the illustration. A blacksmith will shape the pieces C and D 
for a small charge if no forge is available. In addition to the 
hole for the pipe in the handle, a saw kerf in the direction of the 
grain makes it possible for the bolts to grip the pipe firmly. 

If a pipe is used as an axle, the handle is held on by caps. 
If a rod is used, it must be threaded and a nut screwed on each 
end. In either case it is advisable to have one or two washers 
between the nut or cap and the handle, and between the handle 
and the concrete. Since the roller is to be used with a back- 
ward as well as a forward pull, to make sure tliat the nuts will 
stay on the axle, the ends of the rod should be riveted after the 
nuts have been screwed on. In case a pipe is used, the threads 
of the pipe should be painted and the caps screwed on while 
the paint is still wet. The roller should not be used until the 
paint is thoroughly dry so that the caps will not come off when 
the roller is pulled backwards. 



' The circumference of a circle is determined by multiplying the diam- 
eter by 3.1416. 



208 



CONCRETE 



Fig. 16 






Cores 



Cardboofct ^^ 
fastened on with brads 




Screws 



AQUARIUM CASTLES. 

A castle for an aquarium offers an excellent opportunity for 
indoor concrete work. It will beautify the aquarium and supply 
the fish with something which they enjoy. A-Fig 18 shows a 
rock castle through which the fish can swim. Such a formation 
is made by building up instead of pouring. A 1 :1 mixture of 
cement and sand, with water enough added to bring it to the con- 
sistency of mortar, is spread around the cores. Rocks of pleasing 
color and shape are partly imbedded in the fresh concrete in such 
a way that the exposed parts give a pleasing shape to the whole 
castle. Rocks of irregular shape stick into the concrete better 
than round rocks. The most effective results are obtained when 
rocks of granite-like quality are broken and the newly exposed 
surfaces placed toward the outside. 

Unusual care should be used to see that the cores and mould- 
ing board are thoroughly oil soaked. Otherwise water will soak 
into them as the concrete is applied, causing them to expand 
and crack the concrete as it dries. By notching one core into 
the other, B-Fig. 18, the openings meet in the center of the castle. 

A castle such as C-Fig. 18 can be poured in a form in the 
same way as the flower box (Page 200), is poured. 



TREE REPAIRING 



209 




X/ ;/'8-2° 




shaped L > ["'^°'J^'^^'^ \ \ 

cavity-^ l I inoped cavity j^j 




TiQ.ZX 



Opening ^ cavity^ 
fieadqfbolt 




Openings 0/ 
ca\jfty ^ 




TREE REPAIRING 

Another phase of concrete work deserving of much atten- 
tion is the cleaning out, filHng and seaHng of the decayed por- 
tions of trees. Shade trees are sometimes not fully appreciated 
until they have been destroyed, either by being blown down or 
by dying from decay. A good shade tree often adds several 
hundreds of dollars to the value of a property. It takes years for 
it to grow to a sufficient size to produce shade, while its destruc- 
tion may be accomplished in a comparatively short time. People 
are beginning to realize that decaying trees should be properly 
cared for. 

The growing part of a tree trunk is just under the bark. 
(See section on Wood and Lumber.) Often a tree trunk is 
snagged by the hub of a wagon or gnawed by a horse so that 
the protecting bark and the growing part are broken, leaving 
the heart wood of the tree exposed to the elements and to boring 
insects. This frequenlty results in the inner portion of the tree 
becoming decayed, only slightly at first, but in time to such 
an extent that the tree trunk becomes too weak to stand the 
strain of heavy winds. 



210 CONCRETE 

A limb, which has been broken and has been allowed to 
remain without being properly pruned and treated, often absorbs 
moisture and transmits it to the inner portion of the tree. To 
all outward appearances the tree is sound, the crown is perfect 
in shape and healthy in appearance but moisture seeping into 
the heart wood has started a fungus growth, insects have been 
attracted to the diseased part and before long large portions of 
the inner part of the trunk are weakened or destroyed. 

In order to repair or doctor a defective tree trunk, the 
decayed or affected portion must first be removed. This should 
l)e done during the summer when not much sap is passing 
through the tree. If it is done at the season of the year when 
the sap is flowing most freely, the sap will ooze out and its 
strength be lost. It should also be done without destroying 
any more of the trunk, especially the growing part, than is 
necessary. One purpose of this work is to make the tree 
stronger and cutting away too much would simply defeat this 
purpose, however, all decayed wood must be removed. 

The tools needed in addition to the concrete mixing tools 
already mentioned are as follows : a heavy mallet, one or two 
heavy socket gouges, a large auger or a brace and auger bit, a 
box scraper, a rammer and a paint brush, (Fig. 19). If extremely 
large cavities are to be filled, the work of removing the decayed 
wood can be performed more easily and quickly if an adze is 
used. 

An opening is first made, with the gouge and mallet, through 
the bark and growing part of the tree, directly in front of the 
point where the wood is to be removed. Since the trunk con- 
tains sap, it will be found that cutting it with the gouge is a 
difficult matter as compared to chiselling seasonea wood. The 
wood should be removed with clean cut chips. It should not be 
split or torn out. Besides removing the decayed parts, the cavity 
must be properly shaped so that once the concrete is placed in 
it, it cannot fall out ; in other words, the inner portion of the 
cavity should be larger than the opening. Fig. 20 shows cavities 
correct and incorrect in shape. The bark should be cut back 
from the edge of the opening for about one-half inch in order 
to prevent bruising it while cutting away the decayed portion. 
If it is difficult to get back into any part of the cavity, the auger 
may be used to rough out that part and the surface finally 
smoothed with the gouge. 

The walls of the cavity should be as smooth as possible, 
paring them with the gouge in small places and surfacing them 
with the box scraper in large places. After the cavity is made 
the walls should be allowed to dry out for several days anci 



TREE REPAIRING 211 

then, to protect them from further decay, they should be thor- 
oughly painted with coal tar, melted pitch or creosote. This 
coating should be allowed to dry out and hardei- for a week or 
ten days and then the cavity filled with concrete. 

The mixture for small and medium sized cavities should 
consist of one part of cement to two parts of sand. Since only 
a small portion of it can be placed in the tree at one time, the 
mixture should be mixed dry and water added to a small part 
of it as it is needed. The mixture must be quite dry as com- 
pared to that used for other concrete work. A test for the 
proper amount of moisture is to squeeze some of the mixture 
in the hand. It should be just wet enough to retain the shape 
or imprint of the hand without water being squeezed from it 
and at the same time it should crumble when touched. Only 
a small shovel full should be placed in the tree at one time. 
This should be thoroughly tamped in with the rammer or a 
blunt stick. The tighter this is pounded in the better. In other 
concrete work, where the mixture is thin enough to flow, it 
settles and becomes very compact, but with this slightly moist 
mixture it must be made compact by pounding it together. The 
cavity should be filled only to within one-half inch of the bark 
line and the surface smoothed with a trowel. Ordinary mixtures 
of concrete shrink when they dry. This mixture being only 
slightly moist retains the same bulk after it becomes hard. If 
it were not for this fact, the concrete would not strengthen the 
trunk. Several days will be required for the surface of this 
concrete to harden and it will take many weeks for the entire 
mass to become hard. 

After the surface of the concrete has become thoroughly 
dry, it should be painted over with tar to keep out the moisture. 
It may also be painted a color to match the bark of the tree after 
the tar has been thoroughly dried out. 

If the tree is quite hollow and if it is necessary to have an 
opening for any great distance through the bark and sap wood, 
a long bolt should be placed through the tree from side to side, 
3" or 4" from the edge of the cavity, Fig. 21. This bolt can be 
placed in position to see that it fits and then removed while the 
concrete is being placed below it. 

Sometimes it is best to make two small holes into the cavity 
instead of one large one, Fig. 22, but this makes it more difficult 
to remove all of the decay. The growing part of a tree, properly 
reinforced as above described, will in a few years time com- 
pletely grow over the concrete filling so that it cannot be seen. 



212 



METAL WORK AND FORGING 



V/rench 




A 



5wQQes 



Fullers 



TonQS 



^olderinQ Iron 



METAL WORK AND FORGING 

As a preventative of much annoyance and loss of time when 
metal parts of implements or machinery break, a repair shop 
where metal can be drilled and forged is most valuable. A 
building or room 12'xl8' will be large enough for both a wood 
work and metal work repair shop. 

Most all machinery is made of iron and steel. One must 
be able to tell the different kinds of metal apart in order to be 
able to secure a new part or repair the old one when it is broken. 
Most every one knows wdiat iron is but few know the difference 
between cast iron, wrought iron and steel. The chief dift'erence 
between them is in the amount of a certain substance called 
carbon which each contains. Wrought iron contains about .04%, 
cast iron about 3.5% and steel about 1%. The more carbon 
the metal contains, the more easily it may be broken, therefore 
cast iron the least desirable for any project requiring strength. 
Wrought iron is the most desirable where flexibility and tough- 
ness are needed, and steel where hardness and keen edges are 
desired. Bases or brackets of tools, implements, stoves, small 
iron pumps, etc., are made of cast iron ; horse shoes, wagon 
braces, andirons and window grilles are made of wrought iron, 
and tools, springs, and parts of machines subjected to great 
strain, are made of steel. 

Cast iron will not bend because it is of a crystalline forma- 
tion. Wrought iron bends easily and steel will bend under cer- 
tain conditions. The more carbon the metal contains, the less 
it will bend. 

The repairing of cast iron is too difficult for a novice but 
many interesting experiments, as well as practical problems, can 
be undertaken in wrought iron and steel. 



PROJECTS IN METAL WORK 



213 




The work in metal can be divided into the following groups 
of operations : 

f Cold ' 4. Threading 

1. Bending \ 

[ Hot 

f Steel 5. Tapping 

2. Drilling -j 

[ Iron 

f Riveting 6. Forging 

T T • • J Bolting 

^- J°^"'"g 1 Welding 

[ Soldering 7. Tempering 

The equipment needed for a metal repair shop should con- 
sist of a forge, anvil, iron vise, drill press, taps and dies and 
such small tools as hammers, tongs, swages, fullers, hack saws, 
drill bits, wrenches, etc., Fig. 1. Some metal can be bent to 
the desired shape while it is cold, holes drilled in it and parts 
fastened together with bolts and nuts or rivets. The projects 
described on page 222 are examples of this kind of work. 

When metal is too thick or heavy to be bent cold, it should 
be heated red hot and then pounded to shape over an anvil or 
held in a vise and bent to shape. This heating can best be done 
in a forge. Fig. 2, which is so constructed that the fire built 
upon it can be fanned from a draft, from a bellows or a blower, 
thus producing a hotter flame. If used in doors, the hood on the 
forge should be connected with a chimney to carry ofif the smoke. 
Both soft coal and coke are used in forging. Coke gives a hot- 
ter fire than soft coal and does not give ofif the obnoxious gases 
which come from coal. Coke is made by driving the volatile 
gases out of soft coal and leaving only the carbon and ashes. 



214 



METAL WORK AND FORGING 




Coke is made commercially by driving these gases from the coal 
in large iron retorts from which the air is excluded. The gases 
which are driven off are purified and made into illuminating gas. 

It is necessary to have a hard surface over which to pound 
and shape the metal. A good anvil serves this purpose. It has 
a flat surface on which heavy pounding is done, and a horn or 
rounded end on which curved bending can be done. There are 
three types of anvils : the cast iron anvil used for light work, 
an anvil with a cast iron body and a steel face and horn welded 
to it, Fig. 3, and the all steel anvil. The cast iron anvil with 
a steel face is very satisfactory and costs considerably less than 
the all steel anvil. Anvils are sold by weight. One weighing 
from seventy to one hundred pounds is a good size for light re- 
pair work. It should be fastened to a heavy block of wood and 
set within reach of the forge with the horn pointed to the work- 
man's right. There is a square hole in the heel of the anvil to 
hold such tools as the hardie, the fuller and the swage. 

To heat the iron for bending, a good fire should be made 
on the forge and the iron placed in it. In starting a fire, all 
the clinkers and ashes should be removed from the hearth and 
shavings and kindling placed over the tuyere in the hearth. This 
material is then lighted and coal or coke placed over it and a 
slight current of air from the bellows or blower used to make 
the fire burn more quickly. If coke is not available, it can be 
made by placing wet, green coal over the fire. The fire may be 
kept for some time when the forge is not in use, by banking it 
with wet coal. 

Once a good fire is made, that part of the iron which is to 
be bent is placed in the hottest part of the fire, with plenty of 
coke on top of it. When it has reached a bright red heat, it 
should be taken out and held over the anvil and pounded into 
shape. It is necessary to act quickly, while the iron is hot, as 
the anvil cools the iron rapidly. If the iron becomes too cool 
before the desired shape is developed, it should be carefully 



RIVETING 



215 




studied to see wherein it is incorrect and where the blows should 
be applied to force it into shape. Only experience and practice 
will tell one where to strike the metal or how to hold it over the 
anvil to make it come to any certain shape. If this is thought 
out before the iron is placed back in the fire, it will be possible 
to begin pounding it immediately after it is taken out of the 
forge. The iron should not be heated any more frequently than 
is absolutely necessary, as each time tends to burn away the 
metal. Trying to shape metal which is not hot enough will 
result in breaking or cracking it. Overheating will burn the 
metal and destroy its shape. 

Many broken articles may be mended by boring holes 
through a strip of iron and also through points correspondingly 
placed in both parts of the broken article, and bolting this strip 
of iron securely across the break. While a hand drill such as is 
shown on page 21 can be used for light work, a drill press is a 
very desirable tool for a general repair shop. There are two 
kinds of drills, the vertical. Fig. 4, and the horizontal. Fig. 5. 
A vertical drill press should be mounted on a solid post in the 
shop. When boring holes in wrought iron and soft steel, oil 
should be used on the drill point to prevent the drill from over- 
heating and destroying its cutting edge. The temper of a piece 
of steel must be removed before attempting to drill through it 
since it is practically as hard as the drill. A starting point for 
the drill should always be made with a center punch, so that the 
drill will center. 

A shop should be equipped with a vise with wrought steel 
jaws which will permit the hammering necessary to bend and 
shape iron. A combination vise, anvil and pipe vise. Fig. 6, is 
a desirable tool for a small repair shop and is especially well 
suited to the automobile owner or one who repairs his own 
plumbing. 

A combination drill, vise and anvil, Fig. 7, can also be ob- 



216 



METAL WORK AND FORGING 



^f/at ^Hound Countersunk 

/%)/e-j ^Hivet in Headed 
I place-, over. 

/ / / 



Fig. 8 




Hivel/n^^l//:: 
too/3 y^^ 



Fig. 9 




tained and will give very satisfactory service in a repair shop 
where only light work is attempted. 

One of the simplest methods of joining metals together per- 
manently is by riveting them. After the pieces have been prop- 
erly shaped, holes are drilled through the pieces to be joined, if 
possible, holding the two pieces together in the vise while the 
holes are being made. Rivets which fit the holes are selected. 
They must be of sufficient length to protrude some distance 
through the holes, thus allowing sufficient metal to form a head. 
Rivets can be secured with flat heads, round heads or sloping 
heads, Fig. 8. In using the sloping heads, the metal must be 
countersunk to allow the head of the rivet to come flush with the 
surface. The rivets are headed over with the ball "pien" (end) 
of the hammer, the first blow being struck squarely in the cen- 
ter of the rivet to spread it as at A-Fig. 9, and the remaining 
blows directed to shape it as at B. and C., Fig. 9. In case a 
smooth finished, round head is desired on both ends of the rivet, 
a riveting tool, D-Fig. 9, is placed over the end of the rivet and 
several sharp blows driven against it with the hammer, D-Fig. 9. 
In case round head rivets are used, a riveting tool of the correct 
size should be held in the vise and the under side of the work 
held upon it, D-Fig. 9. Small rivets can be shaped cold but 
large rivets such as are used in structural iron work and boilers, 
must be headed over while they are hot. 

Bolts are used in fastening parts together where it is some- 
times necessary to be able to take the pieces apart. Twisting 
the nut on a bolt has a tendency to cut into or mar the surface 
of the material being bolted. A. washer, placed underneath the 



WELDING 



217 





Upsetting 



) 'A < 



^pcarf/ng 





Sc/uanng 



Fig. 12 



Edge WeJd 






Corner IVe/d 




Fig. 13 



nut, will overcome this. Since the bolts have a tendency to 
work loose, they should be held on in some way. This may be 
accomplished by the use of a lock washer, B-Fig. 10, a washer 
which is split and has enough spring in it that it constantly 
pushes the nut tight against the threads, or it may be held in 
place with a cotter pin, placed through a hole drilled in the 
threaded end of the bolt and through the slots in the top of a 
castle nut, C-Fig. 10. The ends of the cotter pin should be spread 
apart to prevent it from slipping out. 

The most permanent way of joining metal together is by 
welding. Welding consists of bringing two properly shaped 
pieces of iron or steel together while they are at the fusing 
point, known as a "weld heat," and pounding them together. 
If properly done, from all outward appearances, and from the 
standpoint of strength, the two parts are made into one. Not 
all kinds of metal can be welded together, due to the fact that 
it will only join when at "weld heat." Some metals become 
softer gradually as the temperature is increased, while others 
retain the same firmness for a long period and then suddenly 
collapse or melt. Cast iron is in this latter class and cannot be 
welded in a forge, while wrought iron is very ductile and can be 
heated many times and pounded into intricate shapes. 

In welding two pieces together, they must first be properly 
shaped. If it is desired that the joint should not show, the 
pieces should be "scarfed," that is, so shaped that when they 
are joined, the total thickness of the two parts will equal the 
original thickness of the metal. To prepare a scarf, the two 
pieces to be joined must first be "upset," that is, made thicker 



218 METAL WORK AND FORGIxXG 

at the place to be scarfed. This is done by heating the iron at 
that point only and pounding on the end of it as at A-Fig. 12. 
This increases the thickness of the iron at that point. It is then 
squared and scaried. When the ocarf is made the metal is 
stretched back to its original length. Figs. 11 and 13 show the 
various steps in making a weld. It is very necessary that the 
scarf be shaped so that it is higher in the center, in order that 
the two surfaces, when pounded together, will force the particles 
of scale or iron oxide, out of the joint and permit the metal to 
unite, while if hollow shaped in the center, these particles will 
be held in and the metal will not hold. 

In welding two pieces of iron or soft steel together, the por- 
tions to be welded should be heated slowly so that they will be 
heated entirely through the pieces and not merely on the surface. 
If too much air is forced through the fire after the iron becomes 
red hot, scales will form on the outside of the iron and prevent 
a good weld. These scales are formed by the excess amount of 
oxygen in the air uniting with the iron, forming a substance 
called iron oxide. If the iron is heated too hot and too long, it 
will all burn in this way and will be worthless. A good weld 
heat has been reached when small, white sparks begin to fly off 
the metal. The sparks are small particles of metal melting. 
After a weld has been securely made the piece may be reheated 
if it has cooled too much, and hammered into the proper shape. 

The most permanent way to fasten tin, brass or copper to- 
gether, is by soldering. In soldering a joint it is necessary to 
have the two parts overlap since the solder itself possesses very 
little strength. It acts on metal much the same as glue acts 
on wood. 

Solder is composed chiefly of lead and tin and it melts at 
a very low temperature. Soldering is accomplished by the use 
of a soldering iron made of a heavy copper bar held in an iron 
and wood handle. Fig. 1. It is prepared for use by heating the 
copper part to a sizzling heat, dipping the tip into soldering solu- 
tion and while it is still hot, touching it to a bar of solder. Upon 
coming in contact with the hot soldering iron, the solder will 
spread over the point of the copper bar. By rubbing it upon a 
clean rag, part of the solder is removed, but enough remains to 
"tin" the iron. The soldering solution is composed of muriatic 
acid and zinc. 

The parts to be soldered must be thoroughly cleaned so 
that no grease or rust is present. This is especially true of old 
work. Unless all the dirt, rust and grease are removed, the 
solder will not adhere. The surfaces are best cleaned by scrap- 
ing them with an old knife or a file until the metal appears 



SOLDERING 219 

bright. The edges of the joint are painted with the soldering 
solution. Since the muriatic acid out of which the soldering 
solution is made, would burn or eat holes in cloth, care should 
be taken not to splash any of the solution on the clothing. When 
the metal has been cleaned and the iron heated and tinned, the 
iron is again touched to the solder. If it is of the right heat, the 
solder will inelt and remain on the iron but if it is too hot it 
will melt and run off the iron. If too cold the solder will not 
melt. While the two parts being soldered are held tightly to- 
gether, the point of the charged soldering iron is dragged slowly 
along the joint. As soon as the iron warms the metal the solder 
will flow ofl: the iron and into the joint, cementing it together. 
The soldered joint should be smooth. If it appears rough, the 
iron, when used was not hot enough. 

Many leaky buckets, wash boilers, tea kettles, etc., can be 
repaired by soldering the hole or leaky joint. 

Rods are held together or held in other parts of metal with 
threaded nuts. A rod is threaded with a die. Fig. 14, which cuts 
threads to fit those made in the nut with the tap, Fig. 15. This 
tap and die are held in stocks. Fig. 17. In threading a rod, a 
die of the right diameter and with the correct number of thread 
cutters to the inch, must be selected. These cutters in the die 
must also have the proper shape to match those in the nut to 
be used. There are several kinds of threads, the most commonly 
used ones being known as United States Standard and V shape. 

The end of the rod to be threaded must be slightly beveled 
with a file in order to allow the die to start onto it. The rod 
must be held firmly in a vise and the stock which holds the die, 
gripped firmly in the hands. Care must be taken to see that 
when the die starts to cut, its broad face is at right angles to 
the side of the rod, otherwise the threads will cut crooked. 
Once the die is started, it should be oiled frequently to keep it 
from breaking as it is forced on the rod. After several turns 
have been made, the stock is given a reverse turn to allow the 
cutters to throw out the metal chips and allow the oil to lubri- 
cate the cutters. 

In tapping out a nut or in threading a hole in a metal plate 
so that a rod may be screwed into it, a hole slightly smaller than 
the rod, Fig. 16 must be bored in the nut or plate. The nut or 
plate should be held rigidly in a vise and the tap turned into it. 
The tap tapers so that it starts into the hole easily. The first 
cutters are small and they become larger as they near the shank. 
This makes the tap cut the threads gradually. The hole must 
be tapped square with the broad face, otherwise the rod will 



220 



METAL WORK AND FORGING 



Die 




Fig. 14 



B 



DQ 



(! 



\ zi 



7hp\\\ 




Fig 15 



Bods/ze 



Die size 




Drilh'ue 



Tap size - 

Fig. 16 



A - 5/ze at root of thread E> - Number of threads to the inch C -Kind of thread 



not enter. The sizes of dies and taps and also the kind of 
threads each will cut, is stamped on them, Figs. 14 and 15. 

The more metal is worked, that is, the more it is heated 
and pounded, the tougher and harder it becomes. Tools made 
of cast metal (metal melted and poured into a mould) break eas- 
ily while forged tools (tools shaped by heating and pounding) 
are strong and durable. 

It is very necessary that metal which is being forged be 
worked at the right temperature or heat. Overheating will draw 
the temper of metal and burn it away, while if pounded into 
shape when it is too cold, the metal will crack or break. The 
best heat for forging is midway between a red heat and a weld 
heat. The more metal is pounded after it is heated, the more 
brittle it becomes. Tools such as knives, chisels and screw 
drivers, must have their edges "tempered," to suit the kind of 
work each is to perform ; for example, the screw driver does not 
need to be hard enough to hold a cutting edge as does the chisel, 
but it must be tough enough to stand the strain of twisting in 
screws without chipping away and it must be hard enough to 
keep from bending out of shape. 

Wrought iron cannot be tempered, due to the fact that it 
contains such a low per cent of carbon, but tool steel, when 
heated to a cherry red and plunged into cold water, becomes 
very hard. If allowed to cool slowly it becomes soft. Between 
these two extremes it is possible to obtain the proper degree of 
hardness to suit the need of the tool being tempered. This de- 
gree of temper in a tool is regulated by hardening it as above 
stated and then drawing away some of the hardness, leaving the 
tool with the proper amount. This is accomplished by polish- 
ing with a bit of emery paper or cloth, those parts which must 
be brought to any certain degree of hardness. The tool back of 
the edge or part requiring the special temper is heated slowly 
and by carefully watching that part which has been polished 
bright, a change in the color will be noted. It will first turn a 



THREADING 221 



Die 5tock 

die 




^ -^- 

handle. (^. ^ ^ , ... ^Handle 

die in 5tock 



Fig. 17 



straw color, then purple, then blue. These colors would mean 
nothing if the metal had not previously been hardened, but since 
the metal has been hardened, these colors indicate that, as the 
color changes from straw to black, the metal is becoming softer. 
When the proper color is reached, the tool is quickly plunged 
into cold water, or, in the case of fine edged tools, into oil. This 
drawing hardened steel down to any one of the colors mentioned 
is called "tempering." The following- table shows the color to 
which various kinds of tools should be tempered. 

Light Straw Hammer faces, paper cutters, metal lathe and 

planer tools. 
Medium Straw.... Wood working edge tools, taps, dies, razors, 

lathe and planer tools. 

Dark Straw Large drills. 

Brown Small drills, saws for metal, wood chisels. 

Purple Cold chisels, awls, wood boring bits, needles, 

axes, hatchets, vise jaws, scissor blades, wire 

cutters. 

Dark Blue Saws for wood, springs. 

Light Blue Blacksmith's punches, light springs. 

Gray Too soft to hold an edge. 

Black No temper. 

METAL WORK PROJECTS 
As in the case of wood working projects, many metal work- 
ing projects involve like fundamental processes, therefore de- 
tails concerning processes have been set forth on the preceding 
pages and only working specifications have been given for the 
following suggested projects. 



222 



METAL WORK AND FORGING 




Angle 7ro/75 




bracket 




hucket Of Tub Hoop 



d 



ReinforcInQ P/oTe 



COLD BENDING 

Drilling 
Riveting 

Angle Irons. Metal of the desired thickness and width is 
cut to length, ends filed square and smooth, holes for screws 
drilled and countersunk, and metal bent to shape. 

Braces. Same as for angle irons. If twisted brace is used, 
twist is made last. 

Brackets. The metal for brackets after being cut to size, is 
folded, the holes for the rivets bored in the brace piece, the 
piece held in position and points for holes in outside strip lo- 
cated. These holes are then bored and the two pieces riveted 
together. 

Hoops. Size obtained by measuring around tub or bucket 
with a string allowing enough extra for over lap (to hold two 
rivets) metal bent to shape, one hole bored through both pieces, 
rivet placed and headed over, size tested, second hole made and 
rivet placed. 



PROJECTS 



223 



Vla^nhed 3take Iron 



r\ 


f II o 


. — 1 




mL^ 



5qcA Holder 





iVCornerlron 



c°: 



Lown Holler 
Handle Irons 




HOT BENDING 

Drilling 
Bolting 

Corner Irons, Metal cut to length, heated at bending point, 
V shaped wedge cut out, iron bent to shape over anvil, holes for 
screws drilled and countersunk. Much stronger corner irons 
are made by welding the seam. 

Wagon Bed Irons, Iron heated at bending point, shaped 
over anvil and holes made for screws. 

Work Bench Frame. Made of angle iron, sawed to proper 
length, ends filed smooth, heated and crimped at bending points, 
reheated and bent to shape, holes for bolts drilled and all parts 
bolted together. 

Lawn Roller Handle Irons, Two pieces of metal cut to 
length, heated and shaped, holes for bolts and rods drilled. 



224 METAL WORK AND FORGING 



=0 



WaQon £nd Gate Hod 

Bing &ofh~^ Porch 3t/vmq//ooA J 

loner 3o/t 



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^^ •m m ; o o , MS -^ 

left hand /htead Toy WagOn Axle MiQht hondihi^od 



(h 





Square Nut Hemoonal Cattle Nut 



Metal P/Qt^ 



THREADING 

Wagon End-Gate Rod. Rod held in vise find threaded. If 
castle nut and cotter pin are to be used, a hole drilled near end 
of rod. 

Long Bolt, 1 

Toy Wagon Axle. '-Same as for wagon end-gate rod. 

Ring Bolt. J 

TAPPING 
Square Nut. Nut held in vise and threaded with a tap of 
the right number and shaped threads. 

Hexagonal Nut. \ 

Castle Nut, j.Same as for scjuare nut. 

Bar Nut, J 



PROJECTS 



225 



Weld 



Toot 5c roper 



h I? 



I B> O 



Porch 5wlnQ Hook^ 



o gg* I c 



Toy Wogon Axle Binqboll 

Po^ bar /"-^ /-^ Oote p/ece 



(2) 

3Qr/\fut 



=0 & 
1 



ZD 



111" 'illil 



H/nq\] holt 
wiihiiJ] Hook 



Gate Hinge 



VJaqon Gate End Rod 



FORGING AND WELDING 

Foot Scraper. Metal cut size, side pieces upset at welding 
point, cross bar upset on end, ends of cross bar scarfed, side 
pieces scarfed, all parts welded and shaped and lower ends bent. 

Porch Swing Hooks. Metal heated and forged to shape. 

Wagon Axle. Square stock cut to length, dimensions for 
round ends laid off and marked with cold chisel, ends heated 
and forged round and then filed smooth and true. 

End-Gate Rod. Round rod cut to length (making sufficient 
allowance for loop), upset on end and at welding point, scarfs 
made at both points, ring bent to shape and welded. 

Ring Bolt. Same as for end-gate rod. 

Bar Nut. Piece of round stock heavily upset (extra length 
should be allowed for this), shaped round in one direction, fiat 
in the other, hole drilled for tap and small end filed smooth. 

Gate Hinge. Post Bar — Gate end, (the end which will be 
placed nearest the gate) upset, holes drilled, round rod inserted 
and welded, post end pointed. Gate Piece — Strap of iron bent 
around mandrel, (slightly smaller than size of post bar pin) 
welded, holes drilled for screws and also for post bar pin. 



226 



PAPER AND PRINTING 
PAPER 

Of the many large industries in this country that of paper 
making and printing probably ranks about sixth. Everyone in 
the civilized world has more or less to do with paper in some 
form or other and the art of printing is ever before us in the 
newspapers, magazines and books and in the advertising circular 
and poster. In spite of this fact the majority of people know 
little or nothing concerning these subjects which form so vital 
a part of our daily experience. Imagine, if you can, the elimina- 
tion from the world of paper and typography — as the art of 
printing with type is called. It would seem to be impossible 
to get along without them. 

It is believed that the first paper w^as made in Egypt from 
the papyrus plant. This plant grows in shallow water. When 
it is broken off or whipped by the wind so that it falls into the 
water it soon becomes soft. The motion of the water so beats 
it that it disintegrates and a fine, fibrous substance from it floats 
about on the surface of the water. When this becomes engaged 
in the grasses it piles up layer on layer and the result is a crude 
paper. This fibrous substance is nothing more than cellulose 
and the paper made in this accidental way is much like the paper 
made today by machinery. It is believed that the discovery 
of this papyrus product was responsible for present day products 
and also for the name paper. 

Fifty years ago paper was made almost wholly of rags, but 
today the greater part of our paper is made from wood pulp. 
Chemically, the substance obtained from wood pulp is about 
the same as that obtained from rags, but it took a great many 
years of experience to discover the fact that it was possible to 
secure that substance from certain kinds of growing plants. 

The fiber out of which paper is made is not manufactured 
as is sometimes supposed. It is merely separated from other 
materials and formed into sheets. This is the fibrous material 
known as cellulose and is found in all sorts of plants in greater or 
less quantities, perhaps more in cotton and fiax than in any 
others. This accounts for the almost exclusive use of rags in 
making pai)er for so many years. 

Some fibers of cellulose are longer than others and of course 
the longer the fiber the stronger and tougher the paper produced 
from it. Flax, from which linen is made, has the longest fiber, 
therefore paper made from linen rags is very much harder and 
tougher than that made from any other substance. For this 



PAPER 227 

reason all of the best papers used for writing papers are made 
of linen rags. 

The fibers which go to make up paper are so very fine that 
one can hardly realize that paper is composed of them, but by 
tearing a sheet of paper and examining the edge keenly, these 
minute, hair-like pieces of cellulose can be seen with the naked 
eye. Paper has grain the same as does wood, due to the fact 
that during the process of paper making the fibers of which the 
paper is composed are laid out on moving belts and naturally 
arrange themselves in a lengthwise direction on the belt. The ' 
direction of the grain can be discovered by tearing the sheet in 
two directions. It tears easily and in a straight line in one 
direction (with the grain) while in the other the line is more 
irregular and the paper harder to tear. 

A boll of a cotton plant (the seed pod) contains a greater 
per cent of cellulose than any other growing plant. The cellu- 
lose is more easily separated from the foreign matter in this 
plant than in any other. Cloth made from cotton has already 
had much of the foreign material removed and for that reason 
it takes less machinery and less work to transform cotton rags 
into paper. If one should take a small c^uantity of cotton or 
linen rags, cut them up into very small bits and boil them for 
several hours in a comparatively large quantity of water, fre- 
quently stirring them vigorously, then pour a portion of the 
substance thus produced into a sieve or fine mesh which is kept 
in constant motion, he would produce a sheet of paper almost 
identical with the rough stock made in some of the paper mills 
today. The fibers in the cellulose become so interwoven as the 
water is drained through that they make a fine, web-like sub- 
stance. By pressing this sheet of pulp with a fairly hot iron, 
the surface might be smoothed down and the sheet would take 
on the texture of the paper made in a mill. 

Paper is made in the mills by exactly such a process as here 
described but of course on a very large scale, never less than 
two thousand pounds in one batch but frequently many batches 
are made at the same time. 

The greatest supply of cellulose which goes into the making 
of paper is obtained from the trunk of the spruce tree. When 
made from trees it is called wood pulp. 

Practically all of the paper used today in books, magazines, 
advertising circulars and newspapers is made of wood pulp. 
Some idea of the enormous amount of raw material which it 
takes to supply the world with paper can be gained from the 
fact that it requires about seventy-six acres of spruce forest to 
make the paper for a single Easter edition of a New York paper. 

While in the experiment suggested, nothing but cellulose 



228 PAPER AND PRINTING 

was allowed to enter into the paper, some commercially made 
paper contains other material, sometimes a pigment to color it, 
sometimes a glue like substance to give it a slick surface and 
sometimes clay to load up the sheet and make it heavier. The 
latter is particularly true of cheap paper, but in the best paper 
only the pure cellulose is used. 

The cellulose, obtained from one source or another, is pre- 
pared (that is, separated from other matter which would be 
harmful to the paper) in huge, steam jacketed kettles, where, 
■ by the aid of intense heat and certain chemicals, the cellulose 
is formed into a pulpy substance. 

Wood pulp must be made somewhat dififerently from that 
made of other materials, because the cellulose in this form is 
harder to separate from the foreign matter. The trees used for 
wood pulp must be cut down in the early summer so that the 
bark, which contains little or no cellulose, can be stripped off 
easily. The tree trunks are cut into tw'O and three foot lengths 
and sent to the pulp factory where they are chopped up into bits 
no larger than a silver dollar. These chips are put into huge 
kettles and cooked in the same way as the rags are, but a dif- 
ferent chemical is used to destroy the foreign matter. This 
substance is then thoroughly mixed and bleached in 
huge beaters. These beaters are enormous tubs containing 
knives and paddles which revolve very rapidly through the pulp, 
cutting and mixing the ingredients very thoroughly with the 
water and chloride of lime, a solution which purifies and bleaches 
it. It is then removed from the beater and as it is carried away 
it is thoroughly washed to remove all traces of the bleaching 
solution. The water is then drawn off, causing the fibers to 
form themselves into a thick blanket of pulp which may be stored 
away for future use in making paper. When needed for paper 
making, these blankets of pulp, along with such coloring mat- 
ter, size, etc., as are needed to complete any certain formula, are 
placed in a "stuff chest," a huge tub, holding about three times 
as much as a beater holds. In the stuff chest an agitator which 
resembles the paddles in an ice cream freezer, thoroughly mixes 
the contents. The mixture is then drawn off and about 98 per 
cent of clear water added to carry it to the "wet" end of the 
paper making machine. 

The Fourdrinier paper making machine is one of the best 
known and most complete of the kind. A study of it would be 
intensely interesting if space would permit. Into it the paper 
pulp, 2% fiber, 98% water, is fed at one end and the finished 
paper taken oft" in huge rolls at the other. This machine is about 
175 feet long. The processes performed by it are as follows: 



PAPER 229 

From the tanks into which it is first put, on the "wet" end of 
the machine, the pulp is distributed over an endless belt of fine 
brass wire screen. The water is drained through this belt and 
by the time the pulp reaches that point where the belt turns 
back, the fibers are so matted together that they can be pulled 
away from the screen in a thin layer. A close examination of 
this layer of paper, especially if a magnifying glass is used, will 
show one side to be rough and irregular while the other side is 
more even and slightly marked with little cavities, regularly dis- 
tributed over the entire surface. These little cavities resemble 
little pin pricks. They are the imprint of the screen or belt. 
The rougher side of the paper is considered the right side, 
being more suitable for all purposes. 

From the end of this belt the layer of paper passes between 
a series of felt covered rolls which squeeze out a part of the 
moisture and from there it passes over and under a series of 
large steam heated rollers or drums. This dries out the paper, 
If it is to be a machine finished paper, it finally passes under a 
series of hot rollers, revolving much faster than it is passing. 
This gives it a reasonably slick surface and when so finished it 
is called machine finished paper. 

If an extremely smooth surface is desired, this machine 
finished paper then passes to the calendering section of the 
machine where certain rollers, revolving in pans of sizing, come 
in contact with the surface of the paper, applying an even coat 
of "size." The paper then passes over rapidly revolving, alter- 
nating iron and steel rollers which give it an extremely smooth 
surface. 

The paper is taken off of the machine in large rolls. As 
one roll is completed it is removed by a simple device and a new 
roll begun without stopping the machine. The machine must 
be thoroughly and accurately adjusted before a run of paper is 
attempted, for once the run is started it must continue until the 
batch is finished. For this reason paper mills run continually, 
day and night, from the beginning to the end of the week. 

Some paper is sold in rolls and some in sheets. The sheets 
are made into packages, a ream to a package. A ream consists 
of 500 sheets of most kinds of paper. Writing paper, however, 
always comes 480 sheets to the ream. 

The different kinds of paper made and the uses to which 
they are put are shown in the accompanying chart. 



230 PAPER AND PRINTING 

PAPER 

Kind Description Use 

Print Made of wood pulp and Newspapers, cheap 

used paper. posters, hand bills. 

Machine Finished Wood pulp, surface Book pages, circulars, 

Book (AI.F.Book)smooth. advertising folders, bill 

heads. 

Antique Book Wood pulp, unfinished Book pages, circulars, 

surface. advertising folders, bill 

heads, drawing paper. 

Sized and Super Same as M. F. Book but Book pages, circulars. 
Calendered heavily sized and calen- advertising folders, bill 

(S. & S. C.) dcred. heads, color prints. 

Enamel Same as M. F. Book, coat- Book pages, circulars, 

ed with casein, glue and advertising folders, 
china clay. color prints. 

Bond Cheaper grades, part pulp. Writing paper, type- 
Better grades, rags only. writer paper, blank 
Best grades, linen rags. books. 

Ledger Heavier than Bond, made Book keeping books, 

of linen rags. record books, diplomas. 

Cover Made of cotton, jute and Covers for books and 

hemp. boxes, tickets, posters. 

Index Bristol Same as Ledger but very Lidex cards, record 

n:uch heavier. cards. 

Ply Board Two or more sheets of Posters, tickets, boxes. 

paper glued together. 
Cheap grade, wood pulp. 
Better grade, rags and 
wood pulp. 
Best grade, rags only. 

Flat Writing Three grades same as ply Ruled stationerj-, legal 

board. forms, blanks, envel- 

opes. 

Straw Board Made of straw pulp. Foundations for book 

covers, boxes and 
mounting boards. 

Tag Board Made of jute. Tags, large envelopes, 

index files. 

Blotting Made of pure cotton. Blotters. 



231 

PRINTING 

Printing with movable type dates back to the fifteenth cen- 
tury. The first movable type w^as made of wood and it was 
indeed a crude product as compared to the beautiful type faces 
of. today. When printing was in the early stages, the type was 
set up and inked, the paper laid upon it, pressure applied, and 
the paper bearing the imprint of the type pulled off. It is hard 
to conceive of the development from that crude form of print- 
ing to the present day cylinder press which can print forty-eight 
full pages of a newspaper at one time, and not alone print, but 
cut, fold and assemble the same. Seemingly this monstrous 
printing machine, called a web cylinder press, needs very little 
attention, but, while it does not take any great number of men 
to operate it, it must be carefully watched and controlled. 

After the invention of movable type, came the cast metal 
type. This brought printing into particular notice, for once a 
mould was made for a letter or character, any number of pieces 
of type could be cast in it and they would all be alike, a thing 
not possible in the wooden type. 

Simultaneous to this metal type invention came improved 
presses and now hardly a week goes by that does not develop 
new improvements and devices for producing better work, or 
for producing it more quickly or with more ease. 

Present day practices in printing vary in different shops and 
in different communities. There is the small shop which, for 
lack of equipment, must still do things in an elementary way. 
There is the large shop so highly specialized that one workman 
in the plant could not carry on another workman's task. In 
the small job shop the type is set by hand and sometimes the 
presses are run by foot power, while, in the large shops prac- 
tically all of the composition work, as setting type is called, is 
done on the linotype and monotype machines, machines which 
cast the type a line or a piece at a time as well as arranging it 
in proper order. In the large shops the presses are operated by 
power and recent developments have produced automatic feed- 
ing devices so that even the man who formerly fed the paper into 
the press to be printed is dispensed with, at least it now takes 
only one man to adjust the feeders which do the work formerly 
done by a half dozen or more men. 

There will always be a place for the small job shop, and 
fortunate it is, for, with the complex organization of any large 
business, it is hard for an individual to get an insight into very 
many phases of that business. The processes necessary to com- 
plete a printed job are about the same in the large and small 
shops, but in one the job is handed on from workman to work- 



212 



PAPER AND PRINTING 



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KLMNOPQRS 


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front 


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Kt Huj appear in print. 


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Fig.l 


Fig. 2 


Fig. 3 



man, each doing his part toward producing the job, while in the 
other the job is usually handled by a very few and sometimes by 
only one person. 

The lirst step in producing a piece of printed matter is the 
designing or arranging of the copy. This may be only a mental 
picture of the finished work, an idea, or it may be a sketch on 
paper indicating details such as size and style of type, arrange- 
ment, color, etc. After the design has been determined upon, 
composition, the setting up of the type according to the design, 
is the next Step. In order then follow, pulling the proof, proof 
reading, correcting (known as imposition), locking up, making 
ready and press work. If it is a book or a booklet, it requires 
in addition to the above mentioned, folding, collating and binding. 

The type used today is made of a white metal, harder than 
lead but not so hard as tin. It is cast in a mould a letter or a 
character at a time. The body of the type is always the same 
height but the size of the face and the height and width of the 
letter vary with different styles and sizes of type. Fig. 1 repre- 
sents a type body of the letter N with the names of the various 
parts indicated upon it. The size of the type from the front to 
back is indicated by points, a point (about 1/72 of an inch), 
being a unit of measurement in type just as an inch is a unit of 
linear measurement. Type sizes range in height from 3j.<2 to 
72 points. 

The imprint made from type is dififercnt in appearance from 
that of the type itself and the printer must become familiar 
with the appearance of both. He must be able to read type as 
quickly as he can read a printed page. Fig. 2 shows how the 
letters of the alphabet appear in type while Fig. 3 shows how 
the print made from the type looks on the printed page. 

Type is kept in shallow trays called type cases. They are 
so divided that there is a compartment, called a sort box, for each 
letter, figure or character. There are many arrangements of 
type cases but the most commonly used are the News and the 



233 



Lower News 



rig.4 



Upper Nev\/.5 




California Job 



California job case, Fig. 4. To acquire skill in setting type, one 
must become thoroughly familiar with the location of each char- 
acter as it is not practicable to take time to look at the charac- 
ters as they are taken from the case. 

"Family" is the term applied to the design of the printing 
face of the type. The family is indicated by some name such as 
"Century," "Lining DeVinne" or "Post Monotone." It is neces- 
sary to have type of different sizes for most every job of print- 
ing, but it is seldom necessary, at least it does not produce the 
best design to have different families of type in the same job. 
The best examples of printing are done in one family of type, 
variety of design being produced by using different sizes, by 
the selection of different styles in that family such as bold, con- 
densed, italic, etc., and by careful arrangement of spaces and 
masses of type. Fig. 5 shows several families of type, several 
styles of one family and several sizes of one style. 

Blank type bodies which are not high enough to print, are 
placed between words and sentences, the larger ones being 
known as quads and the smaller ones as spaces. The face or end 
of an em quad is square, no matter what point of type is used, 
for example, in ten point type the em quad is 10 points from 
front to back and 10 points from side to side, while in eight point 
type the em quad is 8 points from front to back and from side 
to side. 

An em quad is square ■ 

A double quad is equivalent to 2 em quads ^B 

A triple quad is equivalent to 3 em quads ^H 

An en quad is equivalent to Yi of an em quad J 

Three 3 em spaces are equivalent to 1 em quad | 

Four 4 em spaces are equivalent to 1 em quad _...j 

Five 5 em spaces are equivalent to 1 em quad \ 

Type is set in a composing stick, Fig. 6, which can be ad- 
justed to various lengths. The compositor first sights the type 



234 



PAPER AND PRINTING 



Families of Type 


Styles of One family 


Difl&etft 6izes of Type 


Gushing Antique 
Lining: DeVinne 
Centupy' Oldstyle 
Post Monotone 
Clcadacc 
Adtype Series 
Bulfinch Oldstyle 

New Caslon 
Bold Antique 
Condensed Dorsey 


C-entury Expanded 

CetUvrtj Expanded Italu 

Century Bold 

Century Bold Italic 

C«ntury Bold fxindensed 

C«ntury Bold Extended 

Century Oldstyle 

Cent toy Oldstyle Italic 

Century Oldstyle Bold 

Century Oldstyle Bold Italic 


24 Point 

18 Point 

12 Point type 
10 Point type 
8 Point type 

6 Point type 



body he wishes to use, then picks it up with the right hand by 
the face end of the type, twirls it between the thumb and fore 
finger until the nicks are uppermost, and drops it into place in 
the composing stick where the thumb of the left hand holds it 
erect. Fig. 7. The eyes of the compositor should be kept on the 
case and not on the stick if any sort of speed is to be acquired. 
While the hands are placing the type, the eyes are sighting the 
next sort box and type body. At the end of a word, ordinarily 
a 3 em space is used, before a paragraph an em quad and be- 
tween sentences an en quad. When the end of the line is 
reached, if the line of words does not tightly fill the stick, the 
spaces are exchanged for larger sizes so that the words are 
"driven out" to the full measure of the stick. The method of 
changing type bodies in the stick is illustrated in Fig. 8. . With 
the newly selected character the old one is pushed part way out, 
the new one is dropped in its place and the old one removed and 
returned to its proper sort box. If in placing this type body it 
binds, it should be started as in Fig. 9, and the entire line lifted 
up at one end. This will make room for the type body to enter. 

When an entire line has been set up it should be read to see 
if the spelling and punctuation are correct, or if any other errors, 
such as the use of different sizes or styles of letters, have been 
made. If an error is found it is changed as above described and 
the next line is set up. 

When a stick is completely filled with type, it is taken out as 
in Fig. 10, and placed in a galley (a small tray). Fig. 11, and 
the next group of lines set up. If the type set up is not to be 
printed from immediately, it must be tied to keep the type from 
falling over and becoming disarranged. This so called tying is 
done by winding a piece of cord around the type several times, 



PRINTING 



235 




drawing it tight and tucking the ends under the whole group of 
cords as in Fig. 12. 

The next operation is taking the proof. Some printing ink 
is placed on a piece of heavy glass or a sheet of metal and rolled 
with a brayer, Fig. 13, until the ink is distributed evenly over it. 
This inked brayer is then rolled over the faces of the type pre- 
viously tied up until every exposed part of the type faces has 
been inked. A piece of proof paper, usually a light, smooth sur- 
faced paper, is laid over the inked type, the proof planer, Fig. 14, 
placed on top of it and pounded lightly with a mallet. This 
proof planer has a medium soft, felt covered surface which 
pushes the paper down against every type face. The paper is 
then pulled ofif. It should contain an imprint of every type face 
showing how the finished job will look. 

Next the proof is marked, that is the errors are located and, 
with a series of symbols, they are marked as reminders of the 
changes necessary to make the job correct. The marks used 
are standard. Some of them are known as body marks and 
some as marginal marks. Body marks indicate the location of 
the errors and marginal marks show what changes it is neces- 
sary to make. Figs. 15 and 16 show the most frequently used 
proof marks and a sheet of proof properly marked. 




236 



PAPER AND PRINTING 




The form, as this mass of type is called, is next corrected, 
that is, the errors found and recorded on the proof are made right 
in the type. If these are only minor changes, such as replacing 
broken letters, they may be made with the form on the imposing 
stone, but if any great amount of changing is necessary the 
form must be put back in the stick otherwise the length of line 
might accidentally be changed. 

When the form is corrected, the chase is placed around it, 
wooden sticks called furniture are placed between the form and 
the chase and locked (wedged) in place with quoins, Fig. 17. 
In order to make sure that all type faces are on the same plane 
the form is "planed up," that is, a planer similar in shape to the 
proof planer but without the felt covering, is placed on the mass 
of type and pounded gently with a mallet. This will force any 
protruding type down to the level of others around it. The quoins 
must then be tightened. While the form must be securely locked 
in order to keep it from falling out of the chase, extreme care is 
necessary not to get it too tight or the form and furniture will 
buckle and fly out of the chase. To test the ''lock up" the corner 
of the chase is slightly elevated and the hand rubbed over the 
faces of the type to see if any of the type bodies will push 
through. If it is possible to push down type bodies or a line of 
type, it indicates that that line was not properly "justified," that 



PRINTING 



237 



APIECE OF WORK 

I tfm only a picic of work. 

After I leave your hands you 
never se^ me ogatn. 

People looking at em. however, 
CSC you and , so far as they are 
cerned, I'll be you. _ 

Put into me your best so that 
speak to all who see me and tell 
of the master workman who wi 



^^ ^APIECE ^FWORK 



After I Icav. 

^ .^ you^and^. £ 
cemed. I'll be } 



hands you may 



ii^%j/ how. 



■ought 



Put i 



r ifrfti so that I may H^rm. 



me. Say to them through me I know 
what good work is. ' 

If I am well done, I will good into get 
Company and kee'l up the standard. 
If I am Shabby and poorly I will get 
into had company. 

The" how through me yoUr joy In 
what yo" do. so that I may go made, 
the way of alt good work, announcing 

I go that Island for a workman that 
necdet not lo be as hamed 

Chandler smith. 



1 



them Iffrough i 



"I know >/'> 
what good work'^is. \ */ ^ 

II I am well done. I will good into get Xi. 
S) company and kee^ up the standard. 
nl-^/Sc,^! I am'^jihabby and poorly^ 1 will get nt->^"f} 

o/rjoylnD «/3 



y^tgHW«<»eJ Af/t5l/3 




is, properly filled out to the full measure of the line. The error 
must be corrected by increasing sufficiently the size of some 
space or spaces in the line. This calls for very fine adjustment 
because if the line is made the least bit too tight, the original 
error is only multiplied : the corrected line will lock up tight 
but others will be loose. The only safe way is to be sure that 
all lines justify before the type is removed from the stick. If 
all lines of type stay in place, the form is said to "lift" and the 
work of putting it on the press can then proceed. 

There are many kinds of job presses but perhaps the most 
widely used is known as the Gordon press. Fig. 18. Before a 
job is printed, the press should be thoroughly adjusted and prop- 
erly oiled and the rollers placed in position. Good press work 
depends largely on the condition of the rollers. Rollers are made 
of glue, glycerine, castor-oil, borax and varnish, these materials 
being melted together and cast in a mould around an iron rod or 
core which is wound with a cord to keep the composition from 
slipping ofif. There are winter and summer rollers, the propor- 
tion of the ingredients in the composition being changed to meet 
the condition of the season. To do good work, rollers must be 
kept clean and their surfaces alive, that is flexible. If they be- 
come hard and dead, they should be remade. 



238 



PAPER AND PRINTING 



'Ink diik 

- Polltra 
fBed 

TJ ^Platen 

iff ^f'"'c'y f°^l^ 




Foot treadle 



T\6\b 



Gau^e pirn 
Gripper ot 



dripper 
bar 



Lower Bale 




ZDra^vs/.eetilj- 
6 Padshefh) ^ ^ 



Upper bale 



Bed of platen 

Fig. 19 



To ink the press, a brayer heavily inked as when taking a 
proof, is run over the disk on the press. In the absence of a 
brayer, small portions of ink may be placed on the right hand 
side of the disk and the press operated with the rollers in place 
until the ink is evenly distributed over the disk and rollers. 

The platen, that part of the press on which the sheet of 
paper is laid to receive the impression from the type, has to be 
padded with paper to form a tympan. The building up of the 
tympan to suit any particular form is called "making ready." 
This is one of the most important operations in printing for, 
without a proper make ready, good printing cannot be done. 
In making ready a press, the lower bale is loosened and a draw 
sheet of heavy, hard surfaced paper slipped under it and the bale 
clamped down. Several sheets of paper called pad sheets are 
next placed on the platen under the draw sheet and the draw 
sheet is smoothed tightly over them and clamped under the up- 
per bale. Fig. 19. 

The fingers or grippers must next be loosened and moved 
out to the edge of the gripper bar and fastened securely. The 
chase containing the form is then lifted and set on the projecting 
lugs on the bed of the press, and the clamp above the bed lifted 
so that the chase can be slipped in place and the clamp made 
tight. The chase should be shoved to the extreme left side of 
the bed before being clamped permanently. 

The fly wheel of the press is turned sufficiently to close the 
press and as the tympan closes against the bed of the press, now 
containing the form of type, close watch is kept to see that the 
grippers are far enough out of the way to prevent them striking 
the type. The throw ofif must also be adjusted so that the 
tympan cannot come in contact with the type. The grippers 
.should be as close to the type form as possible without striking 
it. The distance may be very small on the right side but on the 
left at least one inch must be allowed in order to prevent them 
from crushing the gauge pins. 



PRINTING 



239 




The press is run slowly until the platen closes a couple 
of times. This will ink the type and then, while the press is in 
motion, the throw oif lever is shifted, allowing the tympan to 
be closed against the form. This results is an imprint being 
made on the draw sheet. The press is then thrown off (the 
lever' shifted so that even though the platen closes up again 
no imprint is made). The imprint is then examined. If an even 
impression is made it shows that the padding or the "make 
ready" is just right. If parts are indistinct, in all probability 
there is not enough padding, however it is hardly safe to judge 
the make ready by the impression obtained on the draw sheet. 
With a piece of stock on which the printing is to be done, the 
position of each gauge pin is located as shown in Fig. 20 and 
the gauge pins inserted, two at the bottom and one at the left. 
A piece of stock is set against the gauge pins and an impres- 
sion made upon it. If, upon examination, the impression is 
clear cut and even, the make ready is correct. If, when the sheet 
is turned over, it shgws that the letters have punched through, 
the impression is too heavy and a pad sheet should be removed. 
If, at any point, the impression is too heavy and at another it 
is too light, the sheet will have to be "spotted" as follows. All 
of that part of the proof where the impression is too heavy is cut 
away with a knife. With the scissors is cut a piece of very 
thin tissue paper which will just cover that part of the impres- 
sion which was weak. This is fastened upon the proof with a 
small quantity of paste. Too much will soften the paper. With 
a little paste applied to the corners of this spotted proof it is 
set against the gauge pins and permanently held in place. The 
upper bale is then lifted and a pad sheet equal in thickness to the 
proof sheet, removed and the bale replaced. A new sheet of stock 
is then placed against the gauge pins and an impression made 
upon it. If this impression is not uniform, the process of spot- 
ting is repeated. 

When an even impression is secured, a second draw sheet is 



240 PAPER AND PRINTING 

applied as follows. Holding the hand firmly against the tympan 
so that the pad sheets cannot move, the lower bale is lifted, the 
second or top draw sheet inserted and the bale clamped down. 
The draw sheet is then pulled up over the gauge pins and by 
rubbing gently on the top of the draw sheet, their positions can 
be located on the new draw sheet. The gauge pins are removed, 
the upper bale loosened, a pad sheet which is equal in thick- 
ness to a draw sheet removed and the draw sheet laid smoothly 
over the tympan and fastened under the top bale. The gauge 
pins are then inserted in the new draw sheet. A sheet of stock 
is placed against the gauge pins and an impression made upon 
it. It may be found that the gauge pins wall need slight adjust- 
ment to make the margins equal or of the proper proportion. 

Speed in press work can only be acquired by continued prac- 
tice. Slow, deliberate motions, properly placed, produce more 
w^ork than hasty actions full of lost motion. The stock should 
be placed in an even stack on the delivery table and picked up 
a sheet at a time with the right hand and fed into the press. 
After the impression is made, the printed sheet is removed with 
the left hand while the right hand is picking up a new sheet of 
stock to be fed into the press. In case the sheet slips, falls out, 
or is in any way misplaced, rather than let the press close upon 
it, the throw off lever should be shifted with the left hand, and 
when the press again opens the sheet may be adjusted. This 
is very important for, if the press closes without a piece of pa- 
per to take the imprint, the imprint will be made on the draw 
sheet and then when the next sheet of stock is fed into the press, 
the draw sheet impression will "off set" onto the back of the 
paper. While it is true that this can be washed off the tympan 
with gasoline, or dusted with powdered chalk or talcum, so that 
the work may be resumed without danger of offset, time is lost 
in doing it and the make ready does not look well. 

The selection of inks should be carefully made. Porous 
paper takes a slower drying ink than a highly glazed paper. 
Half tone cuts require a very fine ink which is rather quick 
drying. Cover paper needs a very thick, heavy ink. 

After a job is run, the chase should be removed to the 
stone and the form washed up with gasoline. The ink should 
be removed from the disk on the press with gasoline and from 
the rollers with kerosene. 

After the form is washed up, the quoins unlocked, the furni- 
ture removed and distributed to its proper place, a few lines of 
the type are taken out of the form, nick side up as in Fig. 21, 
and a word or two picked off with the right hand and dropped 
a letter at a time into their proper sort boxes. 



241 



SHOE REPAIRING 

Shoes are today usually made by machinery, but when they 
need repairing that can be done by hand with a simple and inex- 
pensive equipment. It is quite necessary to have a convenient, 
well lighted place in which to work. If only a few shoes are to 
be repaired, one can put up with inconveniences, but if a perma- 
nent equipment is desired, a shoe maker's stool, Fig. 1, should 
be obtained. This can easily be made. One should also have a 
low table for holding, the tools and materials. Fig. 2 shows a 
cabinet of simple construction, well adapted for holding the tools 
and materials on top when in use and providing a place for their 
storage when not in service. The equipment and supplies needed 
can be limited to those items in the following list. Fig. 3 shows 
the designs and names of the tools used in this work. 

EQUIPMENT SUPPLIES 

**Iron Stand *Carborunduni Strop Le^ather 

*Set of Lasts, Asst'd **Peg Awl Heel Nails, sizes 3-8 to 8-8 

sizes. A, B, C, D *Stab Awl Clinch Nails, " 3-8 to 7-8 

*Pinchers **Sewing Awl Wooden Shoe Pegs 

*Nippers tCrlspin Lap Iron Sand Paper, No. IH 

*Cutting Nippers **Crispen Rasp Burnishing Ink 

**Shoe Hammer tink Brush Shoe Maker's Thread 

**Curved Lip Knife tHeel Slicker or Bristles 

*Square Point Knife Burnisher Heel Ball (Shoe Maker's 

*Sole Leather Skiver tKerosene Heater Wax) 

*Scratch Bone tShoe Brush Leather Cement 

Rubber Cement 

**Individual tools. 
*One tool for cvciy four pupils. 
tOne tool only for each shop. 

Before undertaking the repairing of the shoe, it is very es- 
sential that the names and purposes of the various parts of the 
shoe be learned. Fig. 4. One must also become familiar with 
the kinds of material used in these different parts and the differ- 
ent forms of construction. Not all shoes are made alike, but the 
chief difference is in the method of fastening the sole to the top 
part of the shoe. There are three ways of doing this ; i. e., peg- 
ging, nailing and sewing. Pegged shoes are not used as much as 
they once were. New shoes are seldom nailed except on the 
heel. Most of the shoe soles today are sewed. 

There are three general ways of sewing on a shoe sole : 
channel sewing, turned sewing and welt sewing. A channel 
sewed shoe is sewed through and through from the inside of the 



242 



SHOE R I -J 'A I RING 








ij) 




3 


Fig. 2 


^ 


* y^'^ 





shoe to the outside of the sole, Fig. 5. In turn sewed shoes, the 
upper is sewed to the sole on the wrong side and then turned, 
Fig. 6. A welt sewed shoe is made by sewing a welt (a strip of 
leather) to the inner sole and upper, and then sewing the outer 
sole to the welt. Fig. 7. 

The outside or exposed portions of shoes are made princi- 
pally of leather, although changing styles demand different ma- 
terials, therefore, canvas, pattern fabrics, patent leather, rub- 
ber, etc., are used. The kinds of leather used for uppers are kid, 
calf, elk and alligator and sometimes in cheaper shoes, sheep 
skin. The soles are made of ox or cow hide. The leather is 
prepared by tanning. A liquor made from the bark of trees con- 
taining tannic acid is used in tanning sole leather. The hides 
of which the leather is made are sometimes salted and dried and 
sometimes shipped to the tanners "green." There they are 
soaked in water to remove all traces of the salt and then milled 
or worked until they become soft and pliable. The hair is loos- 




btretcher 



#=3 Fig. 3 

c3 Hammer 

'C^^^^J'^dZlP O ^ f^eel Slicker 



Ink bruih 



Scratch Bone 




LEATHER 



243 



Fig. 4 
'Strap 



Quarter 




^-^i^^ilnD 



ened by soaking the hide in a hme solution. The hair is then 
scraped off and the hide soaked in tan bark Hquors of various 
strengths, first a 3 per cent solution and finally a 20 per cent 
solution. The first soakings swell or "plump" the hide and 
allow the later soaking to penetrate the hide. The leather is 
then partly dried and the outer surface given a hard finish by 
polishing it under revolving brass rollers. 

Patent leather is a made leather. It consists of a backing of 
canvas or a cheap grade of leather coated with a flexible, black, 
glossy substance resembling a highly polished piece of leather. 
Patent leather shoes are unreliable due to the fact that chang- 
ing w^eather conditions make the surface crack. Once the sur- 
face is broken, moisture seeps in at this point and rots the back- 
ing and the leather breaks. There are also substitutes for 
leather soles but the best of these do not compare with those 
made of leather. 



CHANNEL SEWED 



., (Quarten 




-C/ianne/ ( 
(open; 'Out6o/e 



Fig. 6 

TURNED 5EWED 



''hunnel 



Channel-^ Outio/e' 



Tarred felt 



WELT SEWED 

Fig-7 




t \ ..sr TO 
\ ^Cork Filling 



OatsokJhannd\out/o/e 



244 



siioi': RiawiKixc; 



bQcl(bone 5tnp ^ r-Bend 

( Top heeJ /ijh) ) Ubestgtade half sole) 
(Heel /y/t^r^ [ \ ; 

Tot- Hen I "Foi- Women 



. Shoa/def 
(Cheap grade holfsdn) 




, -Belly 

{Insoles and Middle 5o/es) 



Repairing shoes can be divided into the following groups of 
operations : half-soling, heeling, patching and sewing rips. Heel- 
ing is the simplest and the easiest to accomplish. Heels usually 
wear down on the back nearest the outside, due to the manner 
in which people walk, that part of the heel striking first. It is 
injurious to health to wear shoes "run down" (worn away) at 
the heel, as it creates a strain on certain muscles in the foot and 
ankle. Heels should be built up so that all parts of the heel 
rest on the floor when the ball of the shoe is on the floor. The 
best heels are made of leather, but some heels, especially high 
heels for women, are made of beech or birch wood and covered 
with leather. In half-soling and heeling shoes it is advisable to 
use only the best grade of sole leather. Leather for soles and 
heels should be cut out of the hide as shown in Fig. 8, and the 
outside used as the outside of the sole. The difference between 
the shape of the right and left sole should be studied and a piece 
of leather slightly larger than the sole, cut out. A pattern of 
the exact shape and size can be made if the shoe to be repaired 
is set on a piece of paper, a line drawn around the old sole and 
the paper cut out yi," outside of the line. Since leather is quite 
porous it is best to soak the new soles in water for several hours 
and then stand them up where the water can drain ofi. If al- 
lowed to drain too long they will become too dry to work well, 
but when that point is reached where the leather is pliable, they 
should be pounded with a hammer over a lap iron or some other 
hard, smooth surface until the leather is hard and compact and 
"moulded" into the proper shape, cup shaped, curved two ways 
as in Fig. 9. This moulding makes the leather "lift" or "half- 
sole" come in close contact at the places where it is fastened to 
the shoe, and as the leather dries out it shrinks and draws the 
center part tight against the shoe. 

To repair a worn heel, the top lift (the bottom layer of leather 



HEELING 



245 



Fig. 9 


(3 


-J 

/I 
Outsitl& 


\ 




>cSonA-A 


><rr/c/7 5-5 







Fig. 10 



Tacked on 




A ' ■^t■ C 

x^i^^i^V, Trimmed 




Nailed on 



s^ / shaped 

5 ^^::^ ' f D 





on the heel), should be torn off with pinchers. An iron last which 
iits is slipped inside the shoe and placed on the iron stand and 
the stand placed on the floor between the knees. The protruding 
nails in the heel are cut off as close as possible to the heel and 
the remaining part driven in. Pounding on the heel will have a 
tendency to make the last jump off the stand. To prevent this 
a small strap or light rope made in a loop may be slipped over 
the shoe and last and under the right foot of the workman. If 
more than the top lift has been worn off a small piece of sole 
leather should be cut slightly larger than that part of the heel 
worn down and so shaped and tapered that it will restore the 
heel to its original shape. This piece of leather is fastened on 
by first driving a peg awl through the piece into the heel and 
then inserting and driving in a few wooden shoe-pegs. Nails 
would hold just as well but if it is found necessary to trim 
away any part of the leather, the nails would be in the way 
while the pegs can be cut away just as easily as the leather. 

A piece of tough sole leather properly moulded, and which 
is about the size of the heel, is next cut and held in place tem- 
porarily with about three heel nails. The entire heel is then 
shaped and the pitch tested to see if the heel is of the proper 
height. The lift is then fastened on permanently with heel nails 
arranged as shown at F-Fig. 10. The sides of the heel are sand 
papered smooth so that the new parts blend in with the old. 
The surface is then "set up," that is, the edge of the heel is 
sponged and while moist it is polished with a heel slicker or 
burnisher, which should be heated about as hot as an iron for 
pressing garments. It should be rubbed briskly back and forth 
over the surface until the surface is made smooth. Black shoe 
ink is then applied to the sides of the heel and when it is about 
dry the heel is again burnished until it becomes slick and black. 
The shoes should then be examined inside to see that no nails 



246 



SHOE REPAIRING 




protrude and that the surface is smooth. Fig. 10 shows the 
various steps in heehng a shoe. 

Rubber heels, Fig. 11, are put on in much the same way as 
the top Hft of a leather heel. It is necessary to remove cnougli 
of the heel to give the shoe the right pitch after the rubber heel 
is added. A heel of the right size must be selected as it is diffi- 
cult to trim a rubber heel. Holes are already made for the nails 
in a rubber heel. While they do not show, washers are also 
placed in the heel so that the heads of the nails cannot pull 
through. After the heel is properly shaped, both it and the 
inside of the rubber heel are given a coat of rubber cement. 
When this turns white the heel is placed in position and nailed. 
It will be necessary to use a nail set to make the nails go in deep 
enough, Figs. 12 and 13. The edge of the heel can be trimmed 
if it does not fit perfectly but it cannot be burnished. 

In half soling a shoe the forward part of the sole is cut 
away, first by cutting across the sole midway between the ball 
and shank of the shoe, holding the knife at an angle as shown in 
Fig. 14. Care should be taken to see that the knife does not 
penetrate too deeply and cut into the inner sole. After the in- 
cision is made all the way across the sole, the lower part should 
be cut away if the sole is sewed on, or pulled off with pinchers 
if nailed on. That part of the sole remaining on the shank 
should be skived. Fig. 15, so that it tapers gradually. In case 
the shoe is so badly worn that a hole appears in the inner sole, 
a thin piece of leather or tarred felt, cut and skived to shape, 
should be set in so that the inner sole is of equal thickness 
throughout. A piece of sole leather of the proper thickness and 
shape, which has been previously prepared and moulded, is se- 
lected and the shank end on the cupped side skived to a taper 
which will lap over the taper on the shank. This must be skived 
to a neat edge but not too thin or the nails placed in it will not 
hold. The place where these skived pieces overlap is called the 
graft. The dust on the bottom of the shoe should be wiped off 
with a damp cloth or brush. 



HALF SOLING 



247 



t\Q. 14 



^ke/t 




riQ.15 



'//a// ^Gauging line 



Fig. 16 



The sole properly skived, is next held in place over the shoe 
which should be on the stand and a row of clinch nails driven in 
across the graft. These nails vary in size from 3-8 to 4j^-8 for 
women's shoes to 4^-8 to 7-8 for men's shoes. The bottom 
part of the shoe must be held tightly against the iron last or the 
pounding will drive it out of shape and the nails will not clinch. 
A nail should next be driven into the middle of the sole near the 
toe. This will hold the sole against the shoe while it is being 
trimmed. In trimming the sole one should carefully control the 
knife so that it will not cut into the middle sole, welt or upper. 
The little curved lip on the lip knife is designed to protect the 
upper part of the shoe while the sole is being trimmed. The sole 
should be trimmed about -jV larger than the old sole to 
allow for rasping to final shape. After the sole is trimmed, a 
guide line for the nails should be scored parallel to the edge. 
Fig. 16 shows a quick method of scoring this line, which should 
be about %'' from the edge. The sole is securely nailed on 
with clinch nails placed about Y^," apart on the guide line. 
After all nails are in, the whole row should be gone over with 
the hammer to make sure that all are completely pounded in, 
and clinched on the inside. The shoe should be removed from 
the last and the inside examined with the hand to see that no 
nail points protrude. The edge is next rasped to shape and 
smoothed with No. XYz sandpaper. The edge should then be 
wet with a sponge and "set up" by rubbing a warm burnisher 
back and forth over it. Ink is then applied and when it is al- 
most dry the warm burnisher is again rubbed over it until a 
high polish is secured. The bottom is then rasped to make sure 
that no nail heads protrude, and the sole sandpapered to give a 
smooth, clean surface. This final rasping and sandpapering 
should not be attempted until the leather sole is thoroughly dry. 

Sewing on a half sole is much more difficult but the finished 
results are much neater. Very strong flax thread prepared or 
made into "ends" is used for sewing shoes. These ends are heav- 



248 



SHOE REPAIRING 




ily waxed to give additional strength. Instead of a needle a long 
hog bristle is used and since it does not contain an eye for the 
thread it must be attached in a dififerent way. This preparing of 
the thread and attaching the bristle is called "making a waxed 
end." The bristles used are about 4" long. They have the 
advantage over a needle in that they will not break and at the 
same time they are very small. Before they can be inserted 
through the leather, a hole equal in size to the bristle must be 
made through the leather with a sewing awl. The switch used in 
sewing leather is quite different from that used in sewing cloth. 
In sew^ing leather a bristle is fastened to each end of the thread. 

To make a waxed end, which should consist of from three 
to eleven strands of flax, a piece of the correct length should 
be broken off (not cut). Since flax shoe thread is twisted the 
fibers in it so overlap and hold each other together that it makes 
a very strong strand which is very hard to break. This, how- 
ever, can be overcome by holding tightly with the left hand that 
part of the thread which Is to be broken off at the point where 
it is desired to break it. With the right hand over that part at- 
tached to the ball, rolling it forward over the knee as in Fig. 17. 
the fibers separate and a quick jerk will break the thread. It 
should be pulled apart gradually so that the end will taper due 
to the fact that the fibers do not all break at the same place. 

Several of the threads of the same length should be put 
together, the number depending on the strength of the thread 
needed, laying one just back of the other as in Fig. 18, so that 
the ends when twisted together will make a very fine point. 
They are twisted together in a very peculiar w^ay. The group 
of threads is separated for a distance of about 6" back from 
the end as at Fig. 19, the two parts being as nearly equal 
as possible. This divided end is placed upon the knee and given 
a short reverse twist with the hand as when breaking the flax. 
This gives the fibers in each part of the divided end an indepen- 
dent twist. When they have been twisted to the dividing point 



SEWING 



249 




in this direction, the motion is reversed and the threads twisted 
in the opposite direction, thus bringing the two parts into one 
and forming a gradual taper. The thread being twisted two 
ways makes it very difficult to snarl or twist it when in use. 
The other end of the thread should be prepared in the same 
way. After the strands are twisted tightly together, they should 
be thoroughly waxed by holding a piece of shoemaker's wax in 
the right hand and drawing the thread over it with the left hand, 
starting near the middle of the thread and pulling toward the 
end. 

The bristles are next attached. The split end must be se- 
lected as the one to be fastened to the thread. While holding 
the blunt end of the bristle in the left hand, the other end should 
be waxed as when waxing the thread, applying the wax to 
within an inch of the head or blunt end of the bristle. 

With the bristle between the first finger and thumb as in 
Fig. 20, the pointed end of the thread is wound over the bristle 
toward the blunt end for several wrappings and the bristle is 
then twisted in the fingers so that the thread rolls tightly onto 
the bristle in a reverse direction as in Fig. 21. To insure this 
making a gradual taper, the fingers are held over the thread while 
the bristle is being twisted. A hole is then made through the 
thread about an inch from the thread or split end of the bristle 
and the blunt end of the briDtle is bent around and inserted 
through the hole as shown in Fig. 22 and pulled tight, Fig. 23. 
Any loose- ends of thread or bristle should be trimmed away. 
When the other end has been finished in a similar manner the 
"waxed end" is complete. 

In sewing on a shoe sole, the old sole is removed as already 
described. The new sole is prepared and nailed on at the lap 
or graft, the middle nail is slip tacked (tacked in part way to hold 
the sole in place) and the sole trimmed to shape but slightly 
larger than the welt. If the stitches are allowed to come through 
on the under side of the sole, they will wear in two and let the 



250 



SHOE REPAIRING 



rig.24 



Upper 




Channel open ■ 



ng.25 




■brhtki 



New^itdiD 




Channel closed- 



sole come apart. Therefore, a channel must be cut in the out- 
side part of the sole, in which the stitches can be imbedded. 
The bottom of this channel should be placed as nearly as possi- 
ble under the old stitches in the welt in order to insure the shoe 
being the same size after it is repaired. The location of the 
channel is made by gauging a line around the edge. The chan- 
nel. Fig. 24, is cut and laid back with a knife held at a slant, the 
cut being deep enough to make room for the threads. 

The shoe is placed on its side over the knee and held in this 
position with a strap which is passed around the shank of the 
shoe and down under the foot of the workman. The upper side 
of the welt should be thoroughly wet with an old tooth brush. 
The sewing should start where the new sole overlaps the shank. 
A sewing awl, having a point slightly smaller than twice the 
thickness of the thread being used, is selected and a hole made 
through an old stitch hole in the welt, Fig. 25, and on through 
the sole into the channel. This awl hole must be large enough 
to allow the two bristles to pass through it at the same time, but 
small enough that the threads will bind slightly. Sometimes a 
curved sewing awl is needed and sometimes a straight one is 
better. After a hole is made through the leather, one end of 
the thread is inserted and drawn through to the middle of the 
thread. The next hole is made about -i/' from the first and 
both ends of the thread inserted from opposite sides, to about 
half the length of the bristle. With a bristle m each hand, the 
threads are pulled briskly through the hole. It is best to pull 
the entire length of the thread through until the stitch is made 
because the thread is larger than the hole and if it is allowed 
to stop before the stitch is completed, it will be hard to start 
again. The thread must be pulled tight so that the stitch is 
snug against the welt on the top and deep in the bed of the chan- 
nel on the under side, Fig. 26. Succeeding stitches are made in 
the same way. After the sewing is completed, the channel is 
rubbed shut. The leather must be quite moist so that the chan- 
nel cover will bend back into shape. The shoe is then allowed 



PATCHING 



251 




to dry and the middle tack pulled out. The sole is trimmed to 
shape and rasped smooth and the edge sandpapered. The edge 
is then "set up," inked and burnished until it is slick and bright. 

Patching can be done in two ways, by cementing and by 
sewing. The cement patch looks much neater but in places 
where the parts are subjected to any great strain, the sewed 
patch is necessary. 

The shoe must be placed on a stretcher, Fig. 3, and thor- 
oughly cleaned at the place where the patch is to be applied, 
first by washing to remove all traces of shoe polish and grease 
and then by sandpapering it to roughen the surface so that the 
patch can stick. Unusual care must be taken to see that the 
surface of the shoe is not sandpapered beyond the limit of the 
patch. A piece of thin leather of the same color and texture as 
the shoe, is selected and a portion large enough for the patch, 
cut out. Square corners should be avoided in a patch, the round 
or elliptical patch being much easier to apply. 

The v/rong side of the patch is skived all around to an edge 
of paper thickness. An even coat of leather cement is then 
applied to both patch and shoe and allowed to dry until it begins 
to turn white. Both the patch and the shoes are then warmed to 
an even temperature and placed in position and rubbed to a 
close contact at all points. After the patch has thoroughly dried, 
the stretcher is removed. If the leather was carefully matched 
and the leather skived thin enough, a patch of this kind is hardly 
noticeable. Fig. 27. 

If the shoe upper is torn loose from tb.c welt, it will be 
necessary to sew a patch on. Fig. 28 shows how this should be 
sewed to the upper and to the welt. The patch cannot be skived 
as thin as for a cement patch because the stitches will pull 
through. In sewing to the w^elt the stitches are placed far 
back on the welt so that the patch will take the shape of the 
upper. A patch of this kind should be sewed on the upper first. 

A rip in the vamp may be repaired by placing a patch un- 
derneath and sewn'ng through it as illustrated in Fig. 29. 



252 

ELECTRIC WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION 

Electricity is one of the greatest forms of energy yet dis- 
covered. It has not yet been determined what it really is but 
men have devised v^ays of using it. It is an invisible something 
but the results of its power can be seen around us everywhere, 
from the simple door bell or buzzer to the complex telephone 
or telegraph instrument, the electric light, the electric stove, the 
X-ray, the wireless and the powerful motor moving all sorts of 
machines, elevators, boats, street cars, etc. We could not have 
the automobile or the flying machine of today if it were not for 
the control of the electric spark which ignites the gas in the 
engine at just the proper time. 

There must be a source of supply for electric energy. 
Nature generates electricity in the moving clouds and we see 
the results of it in the lightning. By rubbing a glass tube with 
a piece of silk, or rubbing a piece of sealing wax with a woolen 
cloth, the tube or wax will become electrified. 

Electricity is produced for commercial purposes by means of 
cells or mechanical generators. There are two types of primary 
cells known as the closed circuit and the open circuit, the dry 
cell being the most common of the open circuit type. They both 
produce the same kind of electricity but open circuit cells become 
dead (or polarized) if put into continuous service, while the 
gravity type must have the continuous service to keep it from 
getting out of order. Electricity produced by a mechanical gen- 
erator can be used direct from the generator or it can be used to 
store up energy for future use in a storage battery. 

No matter what kind of supply it is, electricity always tries 
to get away and run into the ground. Its power is peculiar in 
that it moves only through certain objects while others repel it. 
Ordinarily it is carried from the source of supply to the place 
where it is to be used, through a solid wire, usually a copper 
wire. Just how it moves has not been determined. Some 
authorities even believe that it travels in the space around the 
wire instead of in the wire itself. This seems possible because 
of the discovery of the wireless telegraph and telephone, for 
which no wires are used. 

The movement of electric energy is known as current and 
it is said to flow when it moves. Current may be made to flow 
from a cell, generator or battery, when the wire coming from 
the source of supply is attached to the ground or to some 
metallic substance which is connected with the ground or to the 
negative terminal of the battery or generator. This makes what 
is known as a circuit and allows the current to flow in the direc- 



ELECTRICITY 253 

tion it desires. It always seeks the shortest route to the ground 
or to the negative terminal of the battery. To prevent current 
from getting away before the desired destination is reached, the 
wire is sometimes covered with such materials as thread and 
parafifine, rubber, woven braid and weather proof compound. 
Wire covered in this way is known as insulated wire, Fig. 1. 
If current is to be carried through space where interference is 
not likely to occur, it is not necessary to use insulated wire, but 
it is necessary to insulate the connections at the places where 
the wire is fastened. Dry wood is a non-conductor of electric 
current and a wire nailed to a dry wooden post would not be 
short circuited (the current shunted to the ground before the 
desired place is reached), but water is a conductor (distilled 
water excepted) and if rain should fall, the post would be so 
filled with moisture that the current would flow through it. Glass 
or porcelain holders are used to insulate the wire from the pole. 

In the cell, generator or battery, there are two terminals. 
One is where the electricity comes out and is known as the posi- 
tive terminal. The other, where the current returns, is known 
as the negative terminal. In case a wire is run out from the 
positive terminal and instead of being connected to the ground, 
is connected to the negative terminal, it makes the circuit and 
the current will flow. For this reason the negative side of the cell, 
generator or battery is sometimes spoken of as the "ground." 

The wire or any other material through which the current 
will flow is known as a conductor. The smaller the conductor 
the harder the electric current has to work to get to its destina- 
tion, just as water in a creek is swift and turbulent when it 
passes through a narrow channel and slow moving and peaceful 
when its creek bed is wide and deep. This smallness of the 
conductor is said to offer resistance to a current passing through 
it and because of the extra energy used in forcing itself through, 
the current generates heat just as a person, by performing stren- 
uous work, becomes overheated. It is this idea of resistance 
that is used in the electric devices producing heat, such as the 
toaster, flat iron, hot plate or stove, curling iron, glue pot, etc. 
In these devices, a material which oflfers great resistance but 
which will carry the current, is used as a conductor and when 
the current is allowed to pass through it, the conductor becomes 
hot. This same principle is applied to the incandescent light. 
A very fine filament of carbon or tungsten metal can be seen in 
the bulb. It looks black but when the electric current is allowed 
to pass through it, it instantly becomes very hot, almost a white 
heat, and as a result gives ofif light. When metal is heated to 



254 ELECTRIC WIRING AND CONvSTRUCTION 




a white heat in the open air, it melts and flows. To prevent 
this filament from melting- or burning in two, all of the air is 
drawn out of the bulb, thus forming a vacuum, and the end of 
the bulb tightly sealed. 

There is another form of energy which is not the same as 
electric current. It is known as magnetic force. Instead of 
flowing through a wire, or some other form of conductor, mag- 
netic force goes out unseen through the air. That point or place 
from which it comes is known as a pole. Fig. 2 shows a bar 
of steel which has been magnetized, and lines indicating the 
direction in which the magnetic force is moving. 

This magnetic force is limited and reaches out only to a 
limited distance. The more powerful the magnet the greater 
the "field" its force will cover. Anything possessing this mag- 
netic force tends to draw to it anything made of steel, iron or 
nickel. The opposite ends of a magnet are known as north and 
south poles. Fig. 3 shows a horseshoe magnet. This is the 
same as the bar magnet except that it is bent around so that 
the poles are near each other. Either end of the bar magnet 
will attract a nail, tack, knife blade or any piece of steel but 
because of their positions, not at the same time, while in the 
horseshoe magnet, both ends being near each other, attract in 
unison and consequently have greater pulling power. Magnets 
will also attract each other if unlike poles are brought close 
together, but two like poles will repel each other as shown in 
Fig. 4. Once a piece of steel is pulled against a magnet, it is 
difficult to pull it away. In a magnet there is great power, but 
in order to utilize the poAver, it is necessary to have some other 
force working in conjunction with it or there is only one move- 
ment, that of pulling something to the magnet. 

It will be found by experimenting that steel can be perma- 
nently magnetized, that is, so filled with magnetism that it will 
remain magnetized indefinitely. An experiment to prove this 



BELL WIRING 



255 



Tig. 4 




Z^. 3 




\ Direction of 

^ current 



can easily be made by rubbing a small piece of steel very slowly 
over the end of a magnet. This rubbing should be in one direc- 
tion, that in which the magnetic force moves. If the same ex- 
periment is tried with a bit of iron or iron wire (hay baling 
wire), it will be found that the wire docs not become mag- 
netized. However, if a group of these same iron wires are made 
into a bundle, an insulated copper wire wound around them as 
in Fig. 5, and an electric current made to pass through the cop- 
per wire, the iron wires become magnetized, but only for the 
period during which the electric current is passing around them 
through the insulated copper wire. A magnet thus produced 
is known as an electro magnet and its use makes possible the 
door bell, buzzer, telephone, telegraph and wireless. 



BELL WIRING 

Fig. 6 shows a drawing of an electric bell (with cap re- 
moved) having two electro magnets. The binding posts are the 
places to which the wires are attached, -|- in the illustration 
indicating positive or where the current goes in and — indi- 
cating the negative or where the current comes out. When the 
current goes in at the -}- terminal (binding post), it goes around 
and around the soft iron core of the first magnet, then around 
the second magnet and then to the contact point. The armature 
spring pulls back the iron armature so that contact is made 
between the set screw and the contact spring. From there the 
current flows out through the — terminal. When the current 
is turned on, the magnetic force set up in the soft iron cores of 
the two coils, pulls the armature over to the magnet in exactly 
the same way as the horseshoe magnet pulls an iron plate, but 
in the bell the instant this armature is pulled against the mag- 
net, the electric current is broken at the contact point. With 
the current cut off, the cores cease to be magnets and they fail 
to hold the armature against them. When this magnetic pull 



256 ELECTRIC WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION 



Fig. 6 




Contact ipi 
Armature 
Armature spi 
bindirjg poit 



ma^nitt 



Rinding 
post 



Fig- 7 



Binding posti 




Fig. 6 




is gone, the spring pulls the armature back into the original 
position and as soon as it reaches this original position, the elec- 
tric connection is again made, the cores again become mag- 
netized, the armature is again pulled over and again the current 
is broken. This of course takes place very quickly, perhaps 
hundreds of times per minute, and because the hammer rod is 
attached to the end, of the armature, the result is that the ham- 
mer moves back and forth against the bell. The dotted line in 
Fig. 6 shows the course of the electric current. A buzzer, P'ig. 
7, is similar to a bell, the chief difference being that the noise is 
made by the vibration or movement of its parts instead of by a 
hammer striking a bell. 

To install a door bell in a house, one must have an electric 
bell, one or two cells, (preferably dry cells as they are less apt 
to get out of order), a push button for making the electric con- 
nection at the door, and enough No. 18 insulated bell wire to 
reach from the door to the battery and to the bell : also enough 
wire staples, preferably those which are insulated, to securely 
fasten the wires at intervals of every two feet. 

The cells should be placed on some shelf where they will be 
out of the way. If the basement under the house is not too 
damp or too hot, they may be placed on a shelf made by nailing 
a board to the under side of the joists under the floor near the 
point where the bell is to be placed, thus saving in the amount 
of wire needed. If two cells are used they should be connected 
with a short piece of wire, with one end of the wire connected 
to the positive or carbon terminal of one cell and the other end 
to the negative or zinc terminal of the other cell. The end of 
a piece of wire long enough to reach from the battery to the bell 
should then be connected to the remaining terminal of one cell, 
while an end of another wire long enough to reach to the door 
where the push button is to be installed, is fastened to the 
unused terminal on the other cell. These wires, after being 



BELL WIRING 



257 




securely fastened to -the cells, are fastened with staples to the 
joists as shown in Fig. 8. If it is necessary to take the wires 
to the other side of the joist, this may be done by drawing them 
through a hole bored through the joist, or they may be carried 
around the joist as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 8. 

The bell should be fastened to the wall with screws. If 
placed on a plastered wall it will be more secure if part of these 
screws penetrate one of the studs, the 2"x4" uprights, to which 
the laths in a frame house are nailed. The studs are always 
16'' apart from center to center and their location can be deter- 
mined by sound, when tapping a hammer lightly over the wall 
in the proposed location of the bell. The spot over the stud 
gives off a more solid, higher pitched sound. If the visible wires 
are not objectionable they may be tacked along the edge of the 
window casing, base board or picture molding. If the wires of 
the bell are to be hidden, they must be "fished" through the 
hollow wall. This of course makes a neater job. In order to 
get the wire through the wall, a Yx" hole should be bored just 
under the bell, but far enough to the side to miss the stud ; in 
other words, this hole must be an opening into the space be- 
tween the two studs which run from the point where the bell 
is located to the basement, if that is where the battery has been 
placed, or to the attic if the battery is there. Sometimes the 
battery can be placed on a shelf in a closet near the bell in which 
case the wires can be carried around the picture molding or 
perhaps through the wall. If the wires are to be fished, the 
loose end of a wire or a small chain long enough to reach to 
the basement (assuming that to be the location of the battery), 
is shoved through the hole beside the bell. Fig. 9. One can 
usually tell by the feeling of the wire or chain whether it is 
going down or whether some obstruction is stopping it. When 
enough of it has been shoved into the wall to reach the base- 
ment, a helper should be there to see if it is coming through. 



258 ELECTRIC WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION 



W 



Fig. 14 



\_3 




fig. 12 

■^^^^ Puih button 

'Battery 



+ OfCorbonj • — or Zinc 



Fig. 13 




Wires crois/ng 



8 


Fig. 15 


8 




— ^ililh 






N / 


L,-7^ 







By listening carefully while it is moved back and forth by the 
upstairs workman, the one in the basement can tell what 
progress is being made. 

If the space below the bell is boarded over so that the wire 
or chain cannot be reached, a hole should be bored through the 
obstruction with a 1" auger bit. By making a hook of a stiff 
wire and pushing it upward through this hole, it is possible to 
engage the end of the wire or chain pushed down from above, 
and pull it through, Fig. 10. Sometimes in partition walls the 
studs are set up and nailed on the floor after it is laid. In that 
case it may be impossible to fish the wire all the way. If it is 
found to be impossible to get the wire through the floor, the wire 
may be fished out through a hole slightly above the base board 
and then sent down through a hole in the floor as in Fig. 11. 

Once the wire is fished through, the ends of two insulated 
wires are fastened securely to it and pulled back through the 
wall to the bell. One of these wires should be the end of that 
wire which is to be attached to the battery and the other must 
be long enough to reach from the bell to the push button. The 
insulation is scraped off of both the ends of wire and the wire 
which comes from the battery is fastened to one terminal of the 
bell and the other wire is fastened to the other terminal of the bell. 

The wires for the push button at the door are fished through 
a hole directly underneath the push button. The push button 
is usually 30" from the floor. The hole should be small enough 
that the push button will cover it. One wire should come from 
the bell to the push button and the other from the battery to the 
push button. Care should be taken to see that all connections 
are made tight, that the wire is properly fastened and that all 
slack has been taken up. If the bell fails to ring when the but- 
ton is pushed, all connections should be inspected to see that 
none of the wires are grounded, that is, touching any object 
which would conduct the current to the ground and thus cause 



TELEGRAPH CIRCUITS 



259 




the current to run out of the battery into the ground. This 
would soon exhaust the battery. 

A diagram of a bell wired in this manner is shown in Fig. 
12. This is easily read but when a different arrangement, such 
as Fig. 13 is made, it looks more complicated but is really the 
same kind of circuit. To read a '-wiring layout" one should 
start at the positive terminal of the battery and follow the cir- 
cuit around to see that it is complete, that it connects at the 
right places and that it returns to the negative terminal of the 
battery. The solid lines in Fig. 14 show a bell wired so that it 
can be rung from either of two buttons. The dotted line shows 
a push button incorrectly wired. Pushing the button on the 
dotted line circuit would only close the circuit between the but- 
ton and the battery without going through the bell, while either 
of the other two buttons on this diagram will close a circuit 
through the bell. Fig. 15 shows how to wire two bells so that 
they both ring when either of the two buttons are pushed. This 
kind of an arrangement is suitable where one bell is desired 
down stairs and one up stairs, or where one bell is in the house 
and the other bell in the barn or garage. 

TELEGRAPH CIRCUITS 
A different type of battery known as the gravity or closed 
circuit type, C-Fig. 17, must be used in telegraph circuits which 
are used continuously. The open circuit type loses its power 
when used continuously. The receiving instrument or sounder 
works on the same principle as the bell. It has two electro 
magnets. The current is turned on by pushing on the knob of 
the transmitter, sometimes called the key. Pushing on this key 
closes the circuit. This allows the magnets in the sounder to 
draw down the metal bar (or armature) causing a click to be 
made at the sounding point A-Fig. 16. When the current is 
turned ofif, a little coil spring pulls the armature back to the 
original position and causes a click to be made at the second 



260 ELECTRIC WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION 



vr^^r-'Soundef- 



Fig. 18 

Mam Lne- 




3ounder — _|»» i 



\U^tarth 

LinebdtteryM -S I> 



Bday 
~ C 



Hocol battery 
A 



lar7h^\\\\\\\\\\ 

=■ line battery i 



sounding point, B. It is the length of time between the clicks 
made when the key is pushed down and when it is released, that 
is known as an "element." A short element or interval between 
clicks is known as a dot; a long interval as a dash. By a com- 
bination of dots and dashes, letters are represented and words 
can be spelled out. The symbols made by groups of these ele- 
ments (dots and dashes) are known as a code. The following 
table gives the Morse and the International codes. 

International Morse International Morse International Worse 

A . _ 

_ . . . B _ . . . 

_ . _ . C . . . 

_ . . D _ . . 

E . 

. . _ . F . _ . 

_ _ . G _ _ . 

.... H ... . 

I . . 

1 7 Z ~ K I '. I ' 
. _ . . L _ 

The telegraph instruments should be wired as in the illus- 
tration and diagram. Fig. 17. If it is desired to have a tele- 
graphic connection with some one at a distance, it is necessary 
to have a kev and a sounder at each place but it is not necessary 
to have two pairs of wires, in fact one wire is all that is neces- 
sary, provided it is connected at each end to a metal plate or 
pipe which is run into the ground. In a long circuit there is 
such a loss of current that the magnets in the coils in the 
sounder are not strong enough to hold down the armature 
unless a very large number of cells is used. This difficulty is 
overcome by wiring the circuit with relays and local batteries. 
A relay. Fig. 19, is constructed something like a telegraph 
sounder, but the coils are made with many turns of much finer 
wire, thus producing a much stronger magnetic force. In this 



N _ . 


. 1 . . 


O . . 


7 


P 


. . . _ _ 3 . . . _ . 


O . . - . 


. . . . _ 4 . . . . _ 


I^ . . . 


5 


s . . . 


_ .... 6 


T _ 


_ _ . . . 7 _ _ . . 


u . . _ 


. . 8 _ . . . . 


A' . . . _ 


. 9 _ . . _ 


\V . _ _ 





X . _ . . 


(.). . __ . . 


Y . . . . 


._ ._ . __(.)._ ._ 


Z . . . . 


. . __ . .(?) 



TELEGRAPH CIRCUITS 



261 



S /I 


(\ 


'rl^ 




U 4 1 J 


IK-4 = 


1: ' 3 


8^ \^ 1 '^J 
1 sA 





/^ ij 



^^^ 




Fig. 20. — 1-Wooden base. 2-Wooden bracket. 3-Wooden bar. 4-Wire or brad. 
5* — Electro magnets. 6-Iron armature. 7-Iron yoke. 8-FIat head wood screws. 
9-Round head wood screws and washers. 10-Brass spring or rubber band. (.9' is used 
as a binding post). 

* Detail of coil. A-Bolt or soft iron wire : must be the latter if gravity battery 
is used. B-Thin paper tu'^e. C-Consecutive turns of No. 20 or 22 cotton insulated 
wire. D-VVood or fiber ends. 

Fig. 21. — 1-Wooden base. 2-Brass or tin key strip. 3-Metal connector plate. 
4-and 4'-Metal switch closed. (Dotted line shows switch open). 5-Wooden knob. 6-Flat 
head wood screw. 7-Round head wood screw and washer. (6' and 7' are used as 
binding posts). 

way a weak current sent through the coils in a relay will draw 
down an armature as easily as a strong current in a telegraph 
sounder. The wiring diagram at Fig. 18 shows a circuit in 
three units. When the key, A, is closed, the electricity passes 
from the battery, B, along the main line through the relays, 
C-C, to the ground, D, at the other end of the line. In passing 
through the relays, the armatures are pulled up by the electro 
magnets, closing the local circuits. When the current in the 
main line is broken, the springs on the relays break the contact 
in the local circuits, cutting off the current from the sounders. 
Each circuit is complete in itself, that is, the current in one cir- 
cuit does not flow into another, one merely operates the other. 
The current in the main circuit only closes the connection at 
the relay so that the current in the local battery (which may 
consist of as many cells as needed to regulate the strength of 
the sound) flows through the sounder, reproducing the sound 
made by the key at the sending station. The switch on the 
key must be kept closed when the line is not in use, thus enab- 
ling an operator at either end of the line to open the circuit for 
the purpose of sending messages. 

A simple form of key and sounder which can be made with 
a limited equipment is shown in Figs. 20 and 21. In making the 
coils the wires should be wound smoothly, just as thread is 
wound on a spool. Care must also be taken to see that the 
core is properly insulated with paper from the wires wound 
around it. 



262 ELECTRIC WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION 




ELECTRIC MOTOR. 

As has been stated, one cannot sec the flow of electric cur- 
rent, but results from electric current can be seen. The electric 
motor, Fig. 22, is another illustration of electric motive power. 
The electro magnet is again the moving force. A simple type 
of motor which can be easily made and which thoroughly illus- 
trates the principle on which the larger motor works, is shown 
in Fig. 24. 

In this simple motor, when the current from the battery is 
turned on, it travels around the iron core {5), causing it to 
become an electro magnet. The current then travels through 
one of the brushes (1), to the commutator (2), then around the 
armature (3), out through the other brush, then to the battery. 
When the armature is turned to a certain point, the brushes 
exchange contact with the metal plates on the commutator and 
therefore the flow of current is reversed. This reverses the 
polarity of the armature magnets. In this way alternate attrac- 
tion and repulsion is produced between the armature magnets 




Fig. 24. — 7-Wooden base. 8-Wooden coil support. 6-Tin, copper or brass arma- 
ture support. 2-Commutator. 1-Brushes. 5-Field magnet, soft iron. 4-Field coils. No. 
18 cotton covered wire. 9-Armature magnets, flat head wood screws. 3-Armature coil, 
No. 22 cotton covered wire. 10-Cork. ll-^"dovvel rod. 12-Pins. 



ELECTRIC MOTORS 



263 



Fig.Z7 




Knob ^P"^^""^ 

Fig. 50 



Fig.za 

Woven cotton xr — ■t^^t,gf^^^^?^\ 
and paper, \ ,^^T^',^-'"j.^*i^P" 
weat/ierproojedj:^^ " 

Insulated, -' "^ ^ 
wire ^ ^*-«^ - ■ , 

Circular 
Zoom 




Metal molding 
Wood moldinQ (seldom uied; 




Conduit 



and field magnets, first a pull and then a push being given to 
the armature. With each new contact between the brushes and 
the armature plates, magnetic force is again set up and the arm- 
ature is given another pull, only to have the pull cut off by the 
brushes. It is this chasing game, played in a motor, which 
makes the armature revolve continuously as long as the switch 
is closed and the current allowed to flow. 

In making a motor like the illustration, -the field magnet 
must be wound so that one end becomes a north pole and the 
other one a south pole. The armature magnets must also be 
wound in this manner. The polarity of a magnet can be deter- 
mined by grasping the coil with the right hand so that the 
fingers point in the direction of the current ; the north pole will 
then be in the direction of the extended thumb as illustrated 
in Fig. 5. The plates on the commutator must be placed so 
that the brushes make a contact when the armature is in the 
position shown in Fig. 26, the reason being that, in this illus- 
tration, the north pole in the armature is nearest the south pole 



Hnob- 



n 



n 



-U 



-'>~Cut out 



Lame. 



Fi0.53i 



rig.34( 



n 



n 



II 



Single pole switch 



n 



n 



n 



'^Double pole switch 



Fig. 32. — Three electric lights in multiple: turn-off switch at each lamp. 
Example — lights in different rooms or on diffrent parts of an electrolier. 
Fig. 33. — Three lights in multiple : single pole switch controlling all lights. 
Example — same as Fig. 12 except that all lights can be turned on or off from one 
point, provided the individual switches have been left turned on. 

Fig. 34. — Same as Fig. 33 except that switch bridges across both wires. 
Example — same as Fig. 32. 



264 ELECTRIC WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION 



Fig. 35 
Fig 36 










'^'r\l 


() - 


/fnoi-^ 


^^ 


^^' 






m I 




















n I (^ 


: C) 




C) 


-= 


Connect/on 
Tube 










() ^. () 


: () 




() 















Fig. 35. — Three-way switch control (circuit closed in above diag-ram). Turning 
either switch will break the connection. When both switch bars bridge over the same 
wire, the current is turned on. 

Example — light at head of stairs can be turned on or off either from the switch 
down stairs or the one up stairs. 

Fig. 36. — Double branch circuit. Switches at individual lamps. 

Example — one circuit up stairs and one down. 

of the field magnet, making the pull easier. It will be remem- 
bered that like poles repell each other: consequently in Fig. 25, 
even though one pole in the armature is near a pole of the field 
magnet, it will not be attracted to it because the polarity in each 
is the same. A pulley placed on the end of the armature is the 
means of using the power developed in a motor. 

ELECTRIC GENERATOR. 
The strength of a battery is determined by a measure called 
a volt. The ordinary dry cell, when new, usually tests about 
L5 volts. A 1.5 volt light bulb attached to a cell will give off 
light equivalent of 2 to 4 candle power, but for a limited length 
of time only. Its light will gradually grow weaker and weaker. 
The light bulb usually used for ordinary lighting purposes, 
requires 110 volts. To operate one of these bulbs, it would take 
70 new dry cells, connected in series, arid then the bulb would 
give off light for only a few minutes. When current is needed 
in great quantities and for continuous use, it is generated in a 
mechanical way rather than by chemicals. This mechanical 
means is known as a generator, dynamo or magneto. A gen- 
erator is practically the same as a motor, but instead of being 
operated by an electric current passing through it, the armature 
is revolved by some other power, and as this is done a current 
is induced in the armature and sent out through the brushes. 
While it is true that the magnets are only electro magnets, 
enough magnetism remains in the magnets of a well constructed 
generator, to start the current flowing. Once the start is made, 
a part of the new current generated passes around the poles of 
the magnets and increases their magnetic power and additional 
voltage is produced and current is sent out through the brushes 
or commutator. Fig. 23 shows a generator capable of furnish- 



LIGHT WIRING 



265 



A 


B 


C 




() 


i ^^ 


C) 




— 1'®'! 


() 

D 


-^ 1 




^ 


() 


1, 


() 






1 


f 


^ 






\ 


-iyj<-^ 




1 


6 







Fig. 37. — Double branch circuit. 

Example — Lights A-B-C and D down stairs, D connected with wall switch; E-F 
auJ G upstairs circuit, G controlled by two three-way switches, one at top and the 
other at bottom of stairs. (Latter circuit closed, in diagram). 

ing sufficient power to operate electric lights, motors, etc. Of 
course to be made to generate electric current, the armature 
must be revolved rapidly. This is usually accomplished by 
steam or water power. 

LIGHT WIRING. 

For ordinary house wiring for electric lights, much heavier 
wire than that used for an electric bell, known as B. and S. No. 
14 insulated wire must be used. The current must be of suffi- 
cient voltage to make the filament in the lamp hot and bright. 
If the wire is not properly insulated, it is dangerous to handle 
and if short circuited it would set fire to objects around it. 
Connections must always be tightly made, and, in addition to 
being properly twisted together, they should be soldered and 
taped, Figs. 38, 39 and 40. The wires, instead of being tacked 
or stapled, must be wired to or passed through insulating knobs. 
Fig. 27. If wires must pass through the joists or studding, 
porcelain tubes. Fig. 29, are used. In places where the wires 
are fished through walls as in bell wiring, it is dangerous to 
allow the wires to hang without being fastened to insulators. 
Since it is impossible to get at the wire to do this circular loom 
(flexible tubing) Fig. 28, containing insulated wire is fished 
through. In some instances, instead of wires being fastened 
to knobs, they are run in moldings. Fig. 30, which are usually 
used in wiring old buildings, or through conduits, Fig. 31, which 
are usually placed in the walls at the time the building is con- 
structed. 

Light wiring diagrams look much like bell wiring diagrams. 
The method of reading them is the same, the symbols only being 
different. Fig. 32 shows three lights on an electric circuit. 
One wire may be considered as -{- and the other — , The lights 
are places between these wires, bridging a part of the current 



266 ELECTRIC WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION 



Fig. 38 




^ 7\ubber tape 
^ T'riction tape 

5^'^tepSZXJTV^ 



l"3tep 



Fig. 39 



2"* 2tep 




Fig.40 




Hot soldering iron 




Fig. 41 



Key docket 




Attachment Plug 




Pull docket 



across the two wires. The filament in a Hght bulb offers so 
much more resistance than the ordinary wire that it becomes 
hot and bright, thus giving off light, but it does not consume 
all of the current in the wires. Lights wired in this fashion are 
said to be wired in multiple. Fig. 33 illustrates three lights 
wired in multiple but they are all controlled from one switch. 
The wiring diagrams, Figs. 32 to Zl inclusive, show various 
ways of wiring different circuits. 

Splices and taps must be carefully made. Fig. 38 shows the 
method of making a Western Union splice and Fig. 39 a branch 
tap. After a tight connection has been made, the joint should 
be soldered. Fig. 40, and then insulated, first with rubber tape 
and then with friction tape. Connections inside of switches and 
sockets must be securely made or short circuits will result. 
Since it takes at least 110 volts of current to operate the ordi- 
nary electric light bulb, experimenting with light wiring circuits 
is dangerous. False moves or faulty connections may not alone 
cause fire but are dangerous for the workman. Fig. 41 shows a 
key socket, a pull socket and an attachment plug. In fastening 
wires to sockets, switches, etc., the insulation should be peeled 
back just far enough to give enough bare wire to fasten under 
the fastening screw. The end of the wire should be bent around 
the screw in a clockwise direction. 



INDEX 



Adze— 16. 
Anvil— 214. 
Axe— 16. 

Bell wiring — 255. 
Bench hook — 24. 
Bits— 20. 
Blue prints — 84. 
Bolts— 47. 
Brace— 20. 
Brad awl— 20. 
Cane webbinj; — 00. 
Caning — 63. 
Canning — 107. 
Carborundum — 31 . 
Chickens, comniun breeds — 172. 
Chisels— 1.3. 
Clamps, cabinet — 2-"). 
Coke— 213. 
Common joints — 00. 
Concrete — ISS. 

Concrete, consistency of — 191. 
Concrete mixtures — 18!). 
Corrugated fasteners — 51. 
Corundum — .30. 
Countersink — 22. 
Cutting bill— 86. 
Dividers — IS. 
Dowels — 48. 

Drawing instruments — 75. 
Drill, garden — 1(;3. 
Drill presses — 215. 
Dynamo — 262. 
Electric motor— 202. 
Electricity — 252. 
Emery — 30. 

Escutcheon pins — 151. 
Factory organization — 15S. 
Filler— 56. 

Finishing woodwork — 00. 
Floor plans — SO. 
Forge— 213. 
Framing square — 17. 
(Jardenimr. projects in — 100. 
(Jetting out stock— O:!. 
Glass— 58. 
Glazing — 60. 
Glue— 47. 
Gouges — 13. 
Grinding tool.s — 32. 
Growth in trees — 30. 
Half -soling— 240. 
Hammers — 20. 
Hand drill— 21. 
Hand screws — 24. 
Hatchets— 16. 
Heeling shoes — 244. 
Hinges— 49. 
Hog rations — 180. 
Hogs, breeds of— 1S2. 
Hotbed- 160. 
Iron— 212. 

.Tigs in woodworking' — 154. 
.Tob press — 237. 
Knives — 15. 
Knot-!, cause of — 3S. 
Lettering — 81. 
Light wiring — 26."i. 
Locks and catches — 50. 
Lumber, grades of — 30. 
Lumber measure — 30. 
Lundier. plain sawed — 3S. 
• Lumber, quarter sawed — .38. 



Magnetic force — 254. 
Mallets— 27. 
.Marking gauge — 17. 
Measuring and laying out — 93. • 
Mechanical drawing — 7.3. 
Metal operations — 213. 
.Mill bills— SS. 
Mitre box — 25. 
Xails— 42. 
Paint— 5.3. 

i'aiier, how made — 220. 
Paper, kinds and uses of each — 230. 
Patching shoes — 251. 
Patent leather— 243. 
Planes— 0. 

Planing, steps of — 03. 
Plates, metal — 51. 
Portland cement — 188. 
Poultry rations — 177. 
Prepared seatings — 71. 
Printing- 231. 
Proof reading — 237. 
Putty— 61. 

Quads and spaces — 233. 
"Rasp- 20. 
Riveting- 210. 
Rubber heels— 240. 
Rush seating — 67.- 
S'andpaper — 52. 
Saw horse — 23. 
Scraper, cabinet — 29. 
Screw drivers — 2S. 
Screws, wood — 44. 
Screws, lag — 46. 
Seed corn, selection of — 169. 
Selecting stock — 92. 
Sewing shoe soles — 241. 
Shingling — 174. 
Shoe repairing — 241. 
Shop equipment — 3. 
Soldering— 218. 
Spading concrete — 190. 
Spoke-shave — 10. 
Spraying mixtures — 100. 
Stain— 55. 
Steel— 212. 
Staples — 51. 
Sterilization — 107. 
Tanning— 242. 
Tapping a nut — 210. 
T bevel— 19. 

Telegraph circuits — 250, 200. 
Telegraph codes — 260. 
Threading a nut— 210. 
Transplanting — 103. 
Tree repairing — 209. 
Tricks in woodworking — 154. 
Try square — 17. 
Type— 232. 
Type cases — 232. 
Type setting — 233. 
Upholstering — 69. 
Varnish — 57. 
Vises— 24. 

Wax. finishing — 57. 
Waxed end— 248. 
Welding— 217. 
Whetting tools— 33. 
Wood, qualities of — 40. 
Wood, uses of — 11. 
Wood and lumber — 35. 
Wrenches— 28. 



INDEX— Continued. 
Woodworking Projects. 



Ash sifters— 104. 

Barn door — 91. 

Bench hook— 23, 74. 

Bench stop— 23. 

Bird houses— 102. 

Boiler frame for canning — 167. 

Book racks— 73, 108. 

Book shelves — 110. 

Bread board — 126. 

Broom holder — l.'J2. 

Bulletin board — 136. 

Bushel crate — 106. 

Chair— GS. 

Checker board — 128. 

Clilcken coops — ISO, ISl. 

Clothes racks— 112. 

Collar box— 110. 

Combination wagon box — 149. 

Concrete measuring boxes — 190. 

Concrete forms — 19.'! tn 20S. 

Costumer — 134. 

Cucumber screen — icri. 

Cutting boards — 10(;. 

Dibble— 163. 

Dog house — 150. 

Doubletree — 150. 

Drawing board — 120. 

Dry mash hopper — 178. 

Egg candler— 180. 

Electric lamps — 124. 

Farm gates — 140. 

Flower box— 98. 

Fly screen— 138. 

Fly swatter— 138. 

Fly trap— 138. 

Footstool— 73. 

Garden marker — 104. 

Garden roller — 165. 

Hay fork holder— 152. 

Hen's nest case — 177. 

Hog chute — ISO. 

Hog bouse— 182. 

Hog rack— 187. 



.\(iuarium castles — 208. 
Baseball home plate — 193. 
Concrete floors — 205. 
Door weight — 193. 
Fence posts — 195. 
Flower box — 200. 
Flower urn — 202. 
Foot scraper — 194. 



Angle irons — 222. 

Bench frame— 223. 

Bolt— 225. 

Brace — 222. 

Bracket— 222. 

Foot scraper iron — 224. 

Gate hinge— 224. 

Hoops-t222. 

Lawn roller handles — 223. 



Half-soling— 240. 247 
Heeling— 244, 245. 



Hog trough — 185. 

Hotbed— 101, 162. 

House plant-tray — 160. 

Ironing board — 114. 

Tar cover — 100. 

.Tumping standard — 122. 

Kitchen tabk — l.SO. 

Letter holder— 108. 

Liliijirv tiibli — 140. 

Medicine cabinet— 110. 

.Mission stools — 07, 132. 

Mitre box— 24. 

Nail box — 100. 

Oats sprouting tray — 179. 

Pastry board — 120. 

Pedestals— 128. 

Pen tray— 108. 

Piiicil sharpener — 100. 

Plant stand— 118. 

Plant trellis— 98. 

Porcli swing — 142. 

Poultry feed trougli — 179. 

Poultry feeding crate — 181. 

I'oiiliry grit box — 178. 

Po\iltry house — 173. 

Sandpaper block — -52, 

Saw buck — 144. 

Saw horse — 23. 144. 

Seed corn drier — 170. 

Seed corn tester — 171. 

Serving tray — 130. 

Shoe shining cabinet — 118. 

Sled— 114. 

Sleeve board — 114. 

Step ladder— 120. 

Stone boat — 152. 

Telephone stand — 87. 

Three horse evener — 150. 

Tomato trellis— 100. 

Vaulting standard— 122. 

Wagon jack — 1.">0. 

Wash tub bench — 100. 

W^eaving frame — 120. 



106. 



Concrete Projects. 



Hog trough- 198. 
Hutbed— 197. 
Lawn pedestal — 201. 
Lawn seat— 203. 
Roller— 206. 
Side walk— 204. 
Tree repairing — 209. 
Watering trough— 199. 



Metal Projects. 



Mending broken irons — 216. 
Mortise templet — 155. 
Porch swing hooks — 224. 
Reinforcing plate — 222, 225. 
Ring bolt— 225. 
Sack holder— 223. 
Toy wagon axle — 224. 
Wagon bed stake iron — 223. 
Wagon end-gate rod — ^225. 



Shoe Repairing. 



Patching— 250. 



Electric Wiring and Construction. 



Bell wiring circuits — 2.">8. 
Electric motor— 202. 
Insulating — 206. 

Light wiring circuits- 263, 264, 
Splicing a wire — 200. 



Tapping a wire — 200. 
Telegrapli eirctiit— 259, 260. 
Telegraph key — 201. 
Telegrapli sounder — 201. 




§e72:n:5v7r<^S:§3^ 



